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EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


BY 
FREDERICK  F. 


BLACHLY 


PROFESSOR  OF  GOVERNMENT  AND  DIRECTOR  OF  THE 

BUREAU  OF  MUNICIPAL  RESEARCH 

UNIVERSITY  OF  OKLAHOMA 

AND 

MIRIAM  E.  OATMAN 


CHARLES  E.  MERRILL  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


62760 


Copyright,  1920,  1922, 

BY 

CHARLES  E.  MERRILL  CO. 

[2J 


oK 


to    . 

:0 


PREFACE 


This  book  is  an  attempt  to  make   it  clear  to   young 

people  that  the  privileges  and  duties  of  citizenship  are 

<^    matters  of  everyday  life.     Its  object  is  to  lead  them  to  see 

^    government,  not  as  a  remote,  incomprehensible,  and  rather 

\i  alarming  abstraction,  but  as  a  controllable  agency  for  the 

service  of  all  citizens. 

The    organization    and    structure   of   government    have 

here  been  treated  with  constant  reference  to  their  purpose, 

the  carrying  on  of  common  enterprises.    The  young  citizen 

is  rightly  interested  in  the  work  done  by  public  officials, 

^  and  in  his  own  share  in  public  work,  rather  than  in  the 

v8    machinery  itself. 

An  appeal  is  made  to  the  student's  interest  b}'  the  use 
of  many  illustrations  based  on  everyday  experience.  The 
arrangement  of  topics,  beginning  with  local  government 
and  proceeding  to  the  less  familiar  work  and  organization 
of  state  and  nation,  is  designed  to  lead  him  logically  from 
the  known  to  the  less  known. 

The  great  end  of  our  government,  the  service  of  all  the 
people,  is  emphasized  at  every  point.  While  no  attempt 
is  made  to  mislead  the  pupil  into  the  false  view  that  no 
further  improvements  can  be  made  in  our  local  and  general 
systems,  the  value  of  democratic  government  and  the  need 
of  loyal  cooperation  with  it  are  repeatedly  demonstrated. 

The  questions  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  are  intended  to 
lead  the  student  not  only  to  think,  but  to  do.  To  develop 
a  body  of  citizens  who  consider  the  workings  of  their  govern- 


iv  PREFACE 

ment  and  take  an  active  part  in  its  undertakings,  is  the 
fundamental  purpose  of  the  present  volume. 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  several  members  of  the 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Oklahoma  and  to  a  number  of 
other  friends  for  helpful  criticisms  and  suggestions.  Thanks 
are  due  to  various  friends  for  valuable  photographs  which 
have  been  used  as  illustrations;  and  also  to  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York,  for  the  use  of  the 
picture  reproduced  on  page  65. 

F.  F.  B. 
M.  E.  O. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 

I 

I.  The  Nature  of  Government 

II.  The  Functions  of  Modern  Government 

III.  The  Divisions  of  Government 


PAGE 

1 

7 
13 


LOCAL  GOVERNMENT 

IV.  The  City  and  Its  Work;  Street  Build 

iNG,  Cleaning,  and  Lighting 
V.  The  City;  the  Police  Department  and 

Justice      ..... 
VI.  The  City;  Fire  Protection 
VII.  Municipal  Health  and  Sanitation 
VIII.  Water  Supply       .... 
IX.  Disposal  of  Waste 
X.  Education;  the  Public  Schools    . 
XI.  Special  Educational  Agencies 
XII.  Recreation  and  Welfare 

XIII.  City  Organization;    the    ]\Iayor-Coun 

ciL  Plan  .... 

XIV.  The  Commission  and  the  Commission 

Manager  Plans 
XV.  The  Township       .... 
XVI.  The  County  .         . 


19 

26 
33 
39 
45 
51 
59 
64 
68 

72 

77 

84 
87 


VI 


CONTENTS 


STATE  GOVERNMENTS 

CHAPTER 

XVII.  The  Development  and  Work  of  State 

Governments    . 
XVIII.  State  Constitutions     . 
XIX.  The  State  and  Its  Work 
XX.  Education    . 
XXI.  Care  of  Special  Classes 
XXII.  Public  Health 
XXIII.  The  Judicial  Power  of  the  State 
XXIV.  The  Legislative  Power  of  the  State 
XXV.  The  Executive  Power  of  the  State 
XXVI.  State  Finances    .... 


PAGE 

91 
95 
99 
105 
109 
114 
119 
126 
131 
134 


THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 

XXVII.  The    DevelopxMent    of    the    National 

Government      .....     137 
XXVIII.  What  the  National  Government  Does     142 
XXIX.  Public  Defense    .....      144 
XXX.  The  Regulation  of  Commerce  and  of 

Immigration      .....     148 
XXXI.  The  Post  Office  Department        .  .     155 

XXXII.  The    Conservation    of    Natural    Re- 
sources    ......     160 

XXXIII.  Paying  for  the  Work  of  the  Govern- 

ment ......     167 

XXXIV.  The  Federal  Constitution  .  .171 
XXXV.  The    Legislative    Power    of   the    Na- 
tion          ......     175 

XXXVI.  The  Judicial  Power  of  the  Nation    .         182 
XXXVII.  The  Executive  Power  OF  the  Nation  .         188 


CONTENTS  vii 

XXXVIII.  New  Problems  of  the  National  Gov- 
ernment           .....  193 

XXXIX.  The  People  and  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment         ......  197 

XL.  Political  Parties  and  Elections           .  201 

XLI.  International  Relations      .         .          .  208 

XLII.  The  Future  of  America                           .  213 
XLIII.  American  Citizenship — a  Privilege  and 

a  Responsibility        .  .         .  .221 

Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading           .         .         .  227 

Constitution  of  the  United  States        .         .         .  230 

Index          .             .......  245 


INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  NATURE  OF  GOVERNMENT 

The  General  Need  of  Rules  and  Officers. — When  people 
form  a  literary  society  or  an  athletic  association  or  any  other 
organization  for  the  purpose  of  doing  certain  work,  they 
adopt  rules  to  guide  them,  and  select  officers  to  see  that 
the  rules  are  carried  out  and  that  the  work  is  done.  By 
long  experience  men  have  discovered  that  when  a  large 
number  of  persons  are  working  together,  unless  they  have 
some  guiding  rules  and  officers  with  authority  to  enforce 
these  rules,  all  will  be  confusion  and  nothing  will  be  ac- 
complished. There  must  be  a  president  of  the  organiza- 
tion, for  example,  with  authority  to  keep  its  meetings 
orderly  and  to  decide  which  member  "has  the  floor,"  or 
is  entitled  to  speak.  There  must  be  a  treasurer,  with  au- 
thority to  collect  dues  and  to  pay  bills.  Perhaps  there  are 
other  officers,  with  different  powers.  This  depends,  of 
course,  on  the  kind  of  work  which  the  organization  is  under- 
taking. It  is  necessary  for  all  the  members  to  be  guided  by 
the  officers  and  to  keep  the  rules.  If  they  do  not  do  this — 
if  they  refuse  to  pay  dues,  or  engage  in  fist-fights  during 
business  meetings  in  spite  of  all  that  the  president  can  say — 
the  association  will  certainly  be  a  failure.  Obedience  to  au- 
thority is  absolutely  essential  in  order  that  any  organiza- 
tion may  carry  on  its  work  successfully. 

1 


2  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

The  need  of  rules,  and  of  strict  regard  for  the  rules,  is 
naturally  greater  and  greater  as  the  number  of  people  con- 
cerned is  greater,  and  the  work  more  complicated.  An 
athletic  association  in  one  school  might  have  a  few  simple 
rules  and  two  or  three  officers;  but  if  a  league  of  athletic 
associations  is  formed  with  a  branch  in  every  school  in  the 
county,  there  must  be  a  large  number  of  rules  and  many 
officers  of  various  ranks,  such  as  president  of  the  county 
association,  a  chairman  of  each  branch  association,  central 
and  local  treasurers,  corresponding  secretaries,  perhaps 
vice-chairmen,  and  members  of  a  board  of  directors.  To 
make  the  association  a  success,  it  would  be  necessary  for 
every  branch  to  follow  its  rules  or  obey  its  authority. 

In  order  to  make  sure  that  the  rules  of  any  association 
or  league  will  be  followed  by  the  members,  it  is  customary 
to  establish  penalties  or  punishments  for  disobedience. 
Thus,  if  the  Lincoln  Grammar  School  Athletic  Association 
has  a  rule  requiring  all  members  to  attend  its  monthly  meet- 
ings, absence  may  be  penahzed  by  a  fine  of  ten  cents.  The 
breaking  of  other  rules  may  mean  larger  fines  or  suspension 
or  even  expulsion  from  the  association. 

Why  Government  Is  Necessary. — This  makes  it  clear 
to  us  why  government  is  necessary  in  every  nation,  state, 
county,  and  city.  Each  of  these  is  composed  of  a  great  many 
people  who  wish  to  do  certain  things  together,  such  as 
educating  young  people,  taking  care  of  the  poor,  establishing 
a  system  of  waterworks,  and  countless  other  undertakings. 
They  must  have  rules,  or  laws,  and  officers  to  carry  them 
out;  otherwise  they  can  accomplish  nothing.  Just  as  in  the 
case  of  a  private  association,  penalties  are  needed  in  order 
to  insure  that  the  laws  will  be  obeyed. 

Democratic  Government. — When  people  adopt  rules  or 


THE  NATURE  OF  GOVERNMENT  3 

laws  in  regard  to  things  which  concern  them  all — that  is, 
public  affairs — and  provide  for  officers  to  perform  dif- 
ferent duties  in  accordance  with  these  rules,  they  are  said 
to  organize  a  government.  Government  is  a  system  by 
means  of  which  public  work  is  done.  When  a  government 
has  been  organized  by  the  people  of  any  country,  according 
to  the  above  description,  it  is  called  a  democratic  govern- 
ment or  a  democracy.  The  United  States  has  this  form 
of  government. 

Autocratic  Government. — Sometimes  the  rules  by  which 
people  are  governed  and  the  officials  who  carry  out  the  rules 
are  not  chosen  by  the  people  according  to  their  own  will, 
but  are  forced  upon  them  by  a  man,  or  a  group  of  men,  with 
very  little  interest  in  the  wishes  of  the  people  but  a  great 
deal  of  interest  in  personal  advantage.  Such  a  government 
is  called  an  autocratic  government  or  an  autocracy.  Citizens 
of  the  United  States,  and  the  most  progressive  people  in  all 
civilized  countries,  agree  that  this  is  an  undesirable  form  of 
government.  They  believe  that,  since  everyone  is  con- 
cerned in  public  affairs,  it  is  not  just  and  right  for  a  few  in- 
dividuals to  conduct  these  matters  for  their  own  private 
benefit. 

Of  course,  the  people  who  live  under  an  autocratic  govern- 
ment are  always  very  much  greater  in  number  than  those 
who  rule  them,  and  could  easily  overthrow  the  autocracy 
and  set  up  a  democracy  if  they  would  all  work  together. 
As  education  and  enlightenment  are  spreading  throughout 
the  world,  several  nations  are  doing  this. 

Representative  Government. — It  is  impossible  for  all 
the  people  in  a  city,  a  state,  or  a  nation  to  vote  on  every 
law  that  is  to  be  passed,  or  on  every  single  clerk,  stenog- 
rapher, policeman,  and  fireman  who  is  needed  to  carry  on 


EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


public  work.  They  cannot  spare  the  time  from  their  bus- 
iness to  investigate  every  proposed  law  or  every  individual's 
qualifications.  Therefore  nearly  all  democracies  today  are 
representative  democracies.  This  means  that  the  people 
elect  certain  individuals  to  represent  them — that  is,  to  act 
in  their  place — and  to  vote  upon  laws  according  to  their 


Chamber  of  the  House  of  Representiitives  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 
Here  representatives  from  every  part  of  the  country  meet  to  carry  on  public 
business. 

best  judgment  of  what  the  people  need  and  desire.  The 
people  elect  also  some  of  the  principal  officials,  such  as 
members  of  the  school  boards,  members  of  the  city  council, 
and  governor  of  the  state;  and  allow  these  elected  officials 
to  appoint  many  subordinate  officers,  as  city  superintend- 
ents of  schools,  city  health  officers,  stenographers,  secre- 
taries, and  many  more.    This  system  has  two  advantages. 


THE  NATURE  OF  GOVERNMENT  5 

First:  it  saves  the  people  a  great  deal  of  time  and  trouble. 
Second:  it  enables  the  voters,  since  they  have  only  a  few 
men  to  elect,  to  look  about  for  very  good  ones. 

Importance  of  Supporting  the  Government. — When  a 
democratic  government  has  once  been  established,  it  should 
be  loyally  supported  by  everyone,  and  the  laws  made  by 
the  people  or  their  representatives  should  be  respected. 
What  would  be  the  effect  upon  our  athletic  association  if 
all  those  who  had  voted  against  a  certain  rule  should  refuse 
to  keep  it?  We  can  easily  see  that  in  a  short  time  there 
would  be  no  association  at  all,  or  at  best  merely  a  weak 
imitation  of  one,  which  could  do  no  real  work.  Faithful 
support  is  essential  to  the  success  of  any  organization;  and 
this  is  just  as  true  of  public  organizations,  such  as  state  or 
national  governments,  as  of  private  ones.  We  may  seek  to 
have  laws  changed,  just  as  we  may  try  to  have  rules  of  our 
athletic  association  changed;  but  until  the  laws  or  rules  are 
repealed,  they  must  be  obeyed,  for  without  loyalty,  obedi- 
ence, and  cooperation,  no  work  can  be  accomplished. 

FOR  STUDY  AND   DISCUSSION 

1.  Name  some  society  or  organization  to  which  you  belong,  and 
explain  its  principal  rules.    What  is  the  use  of  these  rules? 

2.  What  would  be  the  effect  upon  a  school  if  there  were  no  rules 
of  any  kind?  What  would  be  the  effect  if  nobody  obeyed  teachers, 
principal,  or  other  officers? 

3.  Suppose  firemen  refused  to  obey  the  chief,  laboring  men  re- 
fused to  obey  the  superintendent,  football  players  refused  to  obey 
the  coach.    What  would  be  the  consequences? 

4.  Are  rules  always  agreeable?  Does  the  fact  that  a  rule  is  un- 
pleasant give  persons  to  whom  it  applies  the  right  to  disobey  it? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

5.  What  methods  are  used  in  your  school  to  compel  people  to 
obev  its  rules? 


6  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

6.  What  methods  are  used  when  persons  break  public  rules, 
or  laws?    What  is  the  object  of  punishment? 

7.  Give  several  examples  of  democratic  governments. 

8.  What  is  meant  by  saying  that  a  person  represents  a  school, 
or  a  city,  or  a  state? 

9.  If  you  are  about  to  form  a  county  athletic  association,  will 
eveiy  pupil  in  the  county  attend  the  meeting  at  which  the  association 
is  to  be  organized?  Who  will  attend  it?  How  will  these  persons 
be  selected? 

10.  Explain  clearly  what  a  representative  is  expected  to  do. 

11.  If  you  wish  a  certain  bill  passed  by  your  state  legislature, 
what  members  would  you  ask  to  work  for  it?  Learn  the  names  of 
the  state  senator  and  the  state  representative  from  your  district. 

12.  If  you  wish  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  to  pass  a 
bill,  to  whom  would  you  write?  Learn  the  names  of  the  senators 
from  your  state  and  the  representative  from  your  congressional 
district.    Find  out  exactly  what  is  meant  by  congressional  district. 

13.  What  is  loyalty  to  one's  government?  Why  is  it  necessary? 
How  can  people  show  loyalty? 

14.  Can  a  person  be  loyal  to  a  government  even  though  he 
believes  that  some  of  its  laws  and  undertakings  are  wrong?  Ex- 
plain your  answer. 

15.  What  should  a  loyal  citizen  do  in  order  to  help  improve  the 
laws  that  he  considers  mistaken? 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  MODERN  GOVERNMENT 

Various  Kinds  of  Public  Work. — We  have  seen  that  the 
purpose  of  government  is  to  perform  pubHc  work,  and  it 
is  natural  that  our  next  inquiry  should  be:  What  kinds  of 
work  do  governments  carry  on?  We  can  easily  realize  that 
the  answer  to  this  question  will  vary  according  to  the  govern- 
ment that  we  are  considering.  We  should  not  expect  to 
find  the  government  of  a  barbarous  country  doing  work  of 
the  same  nature  as  that  done  by  the  government  of  a  more 
advanced  nation.  There  are  a  few  things,  however,  which 
are  done  by  practically  every  government. 

National  Defense. — The  first  of  these  important  kinds 
of  work  is  that  of  national  defense.  From  the  savage  tribe 
to  the  most  highly  civilized  modern  people,  we  find  all 
national  governments  endeavoring  to  prevent  and  to  over- 
come warlike  attacks  by  other  nations,  by  means  of  armies, 
navies,  and  necessary  equipments.  Quite  often,  govern- 
ments prepare  not  only  for  defense,  but  for  campaigns  of 
conquest.  Preparation  for  conquest  is  not  a  necessary 
function,  and  it  has  led  to  so  much  suffering  and  injustice 
in  the  world's  history  that  the  greatest  problem  before 
modern  statesmen  is  that  of  devising  some  plan  to  make 
it  impossible  in  the  future. 

Preserving  Internal  Order. — A  second  function  which  is 
carried  on  by  nearly  all  governments  is  that  of  preserving 
internal  order.  We  have  all  read  in  history  about  the  deeds 
of  robber  barons,  and  about  the  wars  waged  by  the  knights 

7 


8  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

of  the  Middle  Ages.  Even  in  those  times,  the  existing 
governments  made  some  attempts  to  keep  order;  and  today 
most  governments  are  quite  successful  in  doing  so.  Our 
own  country  is  still  disgraced  by  occasional  riots  and  lynch- 
ings;  but  as  our  people  become  more  and  more  advanced, 
they  will  stand  firmly  behind  the  governmental  authorities 
and  help  them  to  put  down  all  such  disorders.  Many 
eminent  lawyers  and  other  public-spirited  persons  are  trying 
to  improve  our  legal  systems  so  that  trials  may  be  speedy 
and  guilty  individuals  may  be  adequately  punished,  thus  re- 
moving the  danger  that  people  may  become  impatient  to 
see  criminals  punished  and  may  resort  to  "mob  rule."  But 
even  though  trials  are  slow  and  it  seems  as  if  the  offender  is 
not  being  brought  to  justice  rapidly,  we  must  not  become 
lawbreakers  in  order  to  punish  others.  As  President  Wood- 
row  Wilson  wrote:  "  There  have  been  many  lynchings,  and 
every  one  of  them  has  been  a  blow  at  the  heart  of  ordered 
law  and  humane  justice.  ...  I  can  never  accept  any  man 
as  a  champion  of  libert}'',  either  for  ourselves  or  for  the 
world,  who  does  not  reverence  and  obey  the  laws  of  our 
beloved  land,  whose  laws  we  ourselves  have  made." 

Administration  of  Justice. — One  more  type  of  work  which 
is  done  by  governments  everywhere  is  the  administration  of 
justice.  This  means  the  punishment  of  criminals,  the  en- 
deavor to  reform  them,  the  settlement  of  disputes  about 
property  and  other  matters,  and  the  carrying  on  of  many 
similar  functions. 

Other  Functions  of  Government. — To  these  three  main 
kinds  of  work  modern  governments  have  added  many  others, 
only  a  few  of  which  can  be  mentioned  here  for  lack  of  space. 
It  would  take  several  books  to  describe  fully  the  work  done 
by  our  own  national  government,  and  a  whole  library  to  set 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  MODERN  GOVERNMENT         9 

forth  all  that  is  done  by  the  national  government,  the  forty- 
eight  state  governments,  the  city  and  county  governments, 
and  the  governments  of  territories  and  dependencies.  It  is 
impossible,  of  course,  to  go  into  details,  but  we  may  glance 
for  a  moment  at  some  of  the  more  important  things  which 
modern  governments  are  doing. 

Care  of  Special  Classes. — The  care  of  special  classes  of 
persons  who  are  unable  to  care  for  themselves  is  now  quite 
generally  under  the  control  of  some  branch  of  government. 
In  this  country,  it  is  usually  carried  on  by  the  governments 
of  the  various  states,  or  perhaps  by  the  counties.  Orphan 
children,  imbeciles,  insane  persons,  very  old  persons  who 
have  no  means  and  no  relatives  to  support  them,  the  deaf, 
the  blind,  wayward  girls  and  boys  whose  parents  are  not 
able  to  keep  them  from  doing  wrong,  persons  suffering  from 
certain  diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis — these  and  other 
classes  of  persons  are  cared  for  by  agencies  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

Education. — Education  and  the  promotion  of  scientific 
discoveries  are  matters  of  interest  to  all  the  people  in  a  state 
or  a  nation;  and  all  modern  governments  supervise,  con- 
trol, assist,  or  encourage  them.  Our  national  government 
maintains  a  group  of  officers  who  compose  a  Bureau  of 
Education,  which  collects  and  publishes  material  that  will 
be  of  use  to  educators  and  has  other  important  functions; 
but  the  actual  control  over  pubHc  education  is  held  by  the 
individual  states.  This  is  the  case  for  several  reasons,  one 
of  which  is  that  each  state  knows  what  type  of  education 
is  best  suited  to  its  own  needs. 

Public  Health. — The  care  of  the  public  health  is  now  a 
matter  of  governmental  control.  Nation,  state,  county, 
and  city  cooperate  in  the  endeavor  to  establish  sanitary 


10 


EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


conditions  everywhere,  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease, 
and  to  make  every  citizen  sound,  healthy,  and  vigorous. 

Means  of  Communication. — The  provision  of  means  of 
communication  is  a  very  important  branch  of  governmental 
work.  Our  national  government  maintains  a  Post  Office 
Department,  with  numerous  branches  in  every  state  and 


Sorting  the  mail  in  a  large  post  office.  All  the  letters  and  packages  must 
be  examined  for  postage,  address,  etc.;  and  each  one  placed  in  the  proper 
sack  for  delivery  in  the  city  or  shipment  to  other  places. 

territory.  It  is  also  a  member  of  an  International  Postal 
Union,  which  makes  it  possible  for  a  person  in  this  country 
to  write  to  a  friend  in  China,  with  the  full  assurance  that 
his  letter  will  be  delivered.  Some  governments  own  other 
means  of  communication,  such  as  telephone  and  telegraph 
systems;  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  the  United  States. 
Control  over  Business. — All  highly  civilized  nations  to- 


THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  MODERN  GOVERNMENT        11 

day  exercise  some  degree  of  control  over  business.  It  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  government  may  properly 
regulate  the  more  important  businesses  in  a  way  that  will 
be  fair  to  everyone  concerned.  This  is  the  easiest  and  best 
way  to  prevent  business  interests  from  being  unfair  to  the 
public  by  charging  unnecessarily  high  prices  and  by  other 
means,  and  also  to  prevent  the  public  from  being  unfair 
to  business  interests  by  accusing  them  unjustly  of  doing 
such  things. 

Social  Welfare. — The  development  of  social  welfare  in 
all  possible  ways  is  the  great  general  aim  of  modern  govern- 
ments. All  the  work  of  a  democratic  government  is  meant, 
of  course,  to  make  life  more  worth  while  for  every  member 
of  society;  but  there  are  a  number  of  special  activities  which 
help  directly  toward  this  great  aim.  Among  such  activities 
in  the  United  States  we  find,  for  example,  the  establishment 
of  a  national  Children's  Bureau  at  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
the  protection  of  health  given  by  the  enforcement  of  the 
Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Acts.  Some  governments  provide 
insurance  against  unemployment  and  old  age  pensions. 
One  of  the  interesting  developments  of  governmental 
insurance  is  the  fact  that  during  the  recent  war  with  Ger- 
many the  United  States  government  itself  insured  the  lives 
of  its  soldiers. 

Increasing  Responsibilities  of  the  Government. — All 
the  kinds  of  work  which  we  have  discussed,  and  many 
others,  have  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  government 
because  the  people  have  felt  that  no  individual,  and  no 
small  private  organization,  could  perform  the  work  properly. 
Though  some  persons  believe  that  it  is  unwise  to  allow 
governments  to  undertake  too  many  kinds  of  activities, 
there  seems  to  be  a  growing  tendency  to  place  in  their  hands, 


12  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

or  under  their  control,  more  and  more  of  the  work  in  which 
large  groups  of  people  are  interested. 

FOR   STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  is  national  defense  undertaken  by  governments  rather 
than  by  private  associations  of  patriotic  individuals? 

2.  Give  historical  examples  of  campaigns  of  conquest.  Find 
how  these  were  regarded  in  ancient  times.  How  are  they  regarded 
today?    Why? 

3.  Why  is  the  preservation  of  order  a  duty  of  governments? 

4.  Give  all  the  arguments  that  you  can  against  mobs  and  mob 
action,  even  when  this  is  used  to  punish  criminals.  What  would 
be  the  effect  upon  peace  and  order  if  mob  rule  became  very  com- 
mon? Why  is  it  not  only  disorderly,  but  often  very  unjust,  for 
mobs  to  punish  wrongdoers? 

5.  What  can  be  done  to  lessen  the  evil  of  mob  action  in  the 
United  States? 

6.  Why  is  it  better  for  the  government  to  administer  justice 
than  to  leave  this  to  private  individuals? 

7.  Why  do  governments  undertake  such  work  as  the  care  of 
special  classes,  and  of  the  public  health,  education,  etc.?  Why 
should  not  education,  for  example,  be  left  to  the  parents  or  friends 
of  each  child? 

8.  What  is  the  aim  of  a  modern  government?  How  can  citizens 
cooperate  in  helping  the  government  to  reach  this  aim? 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  DIVISIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT 

Subdivisions  of  the  Government. — We  already  know 
that  in  the  United  States  there  are  several  divisions  of 
government.  Each  voter  helps  to  select  officers  for  the 
national  government,  his  state  government,  his  county 
government,  and  (if  he  lives  in  a  city)  for  his  city  govern- 
ment. 

If  we  have  thought  carefully  about  the  reasons  yhy 
governments  are  established,  we  shall  understand  without 
much  difficulty  why  these  various  divisions  exist.  They 
are  organized  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  convenience  in  perform- 
ing public  work. 

Affairs  Controlled  by  the  City. — The  government  of  a 
city  is  of  chief  interest  only  to  those  who  live  in  that  city. 
Nobody  outside  Jonesville  is  immediately  concerned  about 
the  problem  whether  a  new  system  of  waterworks  shall 
be  installed  there.  It  would  be  merely  an  annoyance  for 
persons  a  thousand  miles  away  to  be  asked  to  vote  on  the 
waterworks  question.  Even  if  they  took  the  time  to  vote, 
they  could  hardly  do  so  with  much  intelligence,  as  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  for  them  to  study  thoroughly  the  needs 
of  Jonesville.  Moreover,  the  expense  of  holding  an  election 
in  which  every  voter  in  the  United  States  was  asked  to  take 
part  would  be  heavier  than  the  cost  of  the  waterworks.  All 
these  considerations  make  it  clear  that  it  is  best  for  the 
citizens  of  Jonesville,  or  of  any  other  city,  to  manage  their 
own  affairs.     They  should  elect  their  own  officers,  decide 

13 


14 


THE  DIVISIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  15 

upon  their  own  undertakings,  and  conduct  their  own  pubhc 
business  without  troubhng  others  or  being  molested  by 
outsiders. 

Affairs  Controlled  by  the  State. — There  are,  however, 
many  public  undertakings  which  are  too  large  for  a  city  to 
handle  alone,  and  in  which  many  cities,  and  many  persons 
outside  cities,  wish  to  cooperate.  Let  us  consider  the 
problem  of  establishing  a  university,  to  which  students 
might  come  from  many  cities  and  country  districts  for  the 
benefits  of  free  education.  Great  undertakings  such  as  this 
are  often  managed,  in  the  United  States,  by  the  state  govern- 
ments. The  same  reasons  that  have  been  given  for  allow- 
ing cities  to  control  their  own  affairs  apply  in  the  case  of  the 
state.  The  people  of  New  Jersej^  are  not  particularly  in- 
terested in  deciding  whether  or  not  Oklahoma  ought  to 
have  a  state  university;  and  it  is  better  in  every  way  to 
let  those  concerned  in  the  question  decide  it. 

Matters  of  National  Concern. — Some  kinds  of  public 
business  concern  everyl)ody  in  the  entire  nation.  There  is 
hardly  a  person  anywhere  who  is  not  interested  in  good 
mail  service.  Nearly  everyone  has  friends  or  business 
affairs  in  some  other  part  of  the  country,  and  needs  the  help 
of  a  well-conducted  postal  system  in  order  to  correspond 
with  the  friends  or  carry  on  the  business.  Everyone  is 
concerned,  too,  in  the  problem  of  regulating  the  great  rail- 
road systems  which  connect  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
so  that  they  will  give  good  service  at  reasonable  rates. 
These  and  many  other  kinds  of  public  work  which  are  of 
interest  to  every  individual  can  be  carried  on  successfully 
only  through  a  government  which  is  set  up  by  all  the  people 
of  the  entire  country — that  is,  a  national  government. 

County  and  Township. — The  general  rule  is,  as  we  have 


16  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

seen,  that  matters  which  concern  a  city  shall  be  managed 
by  the  city  government,  those  which  concern  a  state  shall 
be  managed  by  the  state  government,  and  those  which 
concern  all  the  people  of  the  nation  shall  be  managed  by 
the  national  government.  It  has  been  found  convenient 
to  make  still  other  divisions  of  government,  as  the  county 
and  the  township,  for  certain  particular  purposes,  such  as 
assisting  the  state  in  the  collection  of  taxes  and  the  care 
of  roads  and  bridges. 

Distribution  of  Governmental  Control. — It  is  not  always 
easy  to  decide  w^iich  of  these  divisions  of  government  should 
control  certain  undertakings,  for  there  are  several  kinds 
of  public  work  which  are  of  interest  to  city,  state,  and  nation. 
One  of  these  is  education.  Every  city  wishes  a  well- 
educated  body  of  citizens,  in  order  that  they  may  choose 
good  officials  and  support  progressive  undertakings.  But 
the  state  and  the  nation  also  need  educated  citizens  for 
exactly  the  same  reason.  Which  division  of  government 
should  control  education? 

This  is  only  a  single  example  of  many  public  matters 
which  concern  more  than  one  division  of  government.  As 
it  would  be  foolish  and  wasteful  for  all  the  divisions  to  under- 
take the  same  work,  some  way  must  be  found  of  deciding 
which  one  shall  manage  each  affair. 

Division  of  Work  between  State  and  Nation. — In  this 
country,  certain  historical  facts  have  helped  to  solve  such 
problems.  When  the  original  thirteen  states  adopted  the 
federal  Constitution,  they  retained  all  the  rights  and  duties 
which  were  not  especially  mentioned  as  being  given  over 
to  the  national  government.  This  has  had  a  very  important 
effect  upon  the  distribution  of  work  between  the  state  and 
national  governments.     Another  historical  fact  that  has 


THE  DIVISIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  17 

had  a  similar  influence  is  the  custom  (which  has  gained  the 
force  of  law)  of  considering  that  the  government  of  a  state 
has  the  right  to  tell  the  inhabitants  of  a  city  within  the 
state  what  functions  their  city  government  may  perform, 
and  to  reserve  for  its  own  management  such  affairs  as  it 
does  not  give  over  to  the  city. 

Public  Welfare  as  the  Best  Guide. — Such  laws  and 
customs  have  been  of  great  assistance  when  people  have 
wished  to  decide  some  difficult  problem  concerning  the 
distribution  of  public  work.  However,  the  mere  fact  that 
a  thing  has  been  done  in  the  past  does  not  always  make  it 
advisable  in  the  present,  for  circumstances  are  constantly 
changing.  Convenience  and  public  welfare  are  the  best 
guides,  and  when  old  laws  have  been  found  to  work  in 
opposition  to  these  guides,  they  have  often  been  replaced 
by  new  laws,  better  suited  to  modern  conditions. 

For  instance,  it  used  to  be  customary  for  each  county  or 
township  to  care  for  its  own  insane  persons  when  their  re- 
lations could  not  support  them;  but  this  is  now  generally 
done  b}^  the  state.  Since  there  were  only  a  few  insane  in 
each  county,  it  was  seldom  considered  worth  while  to  build 
an  asylum  and  hire  cooks,  housekeepers,  attendants,  and 
physicians  for  perhaps  a  half-dozen  perilous.  Usually  this 
was  not  done,  and  the  insane  were  not  cared  for  at  all  or 
were  placed  in  a  poorhouse,  where  they  were  not  given 
proper  treatment.  For  much  less  money  than  it  would 
cost  the  individual  counties  to  provide  good  care  and  skilled 
physicians  for  the  insane,  the  state  can  provide  one  or  two 
large  asylums  managed  by  experts;  hence,  the  care  of  the 
insane  has  become  a  state  function  nearly  everywhere  in 
this  country. 

We  see,  then,  that  for  the  sake  of  convenience  there  must 


18  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

be  various  divisions  of  government;  and  that  the  public 
work  must  be  distributed  among  these  in  the  way  which  is 
best  suited  to  secure  convenience  and  general  welfare. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Name  the  chief  divisions  of  government  in  the  United  States. 
What  are  some  of  the  subdivisions  of  these  larger  divisions? 

2.  What  is  the  use  of  having  so  many  divisions  of  different  sizes?  ■ 
Why  would  it  not  l)e  better  to  have  every  part  of  the  United  States 
governed  by  officials  at  Washington?  Why  would  it  not  be  better 
to  abolish  state  and  national  governments,  and  permit  each  group 
of  people  in  the  country  to  govern  themselves  without  regard  to 
others? 

3.  Name  public  matters,  besides  education,  which  concern  more 
than  one  division  of  government.  Which  one  of  the  divisions  of 
government  takes  charge  of  each  matter  that  you  have  named? 
Can  you  learn  why  this  is  the  case,  in  each  instance? 

4.  Name  any  kinds  of  public  work  in  which  various  divisions  of 
government  cooperate. 

5.  What  is  the  common-sense  standard  to  apply  in  deciding 
which  division  of  government  should  take  charge  of  certain  work? 


LOCAL   GOVERNMENT 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    CITY    AND    ITS    WORK;    STREET    BUILDING, 
CLEANING,  AND  LIGHTING 

Local  Government. — The  divisions  of  government  which 
perform  the  pubhc  work  of  small  localities  are  called  local 
governments.  This  name  is  used  for  the  governments  of 
city,  township,  and  county.  The  city  gives  us  the  most 
familiar  example  of  local  government. 

About  one  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States 
live  in  cities  with  a  population  of  five  thousand  persons  or 
more.  As  we  already  know,  it  is  necessary  for  the  dwellers 
in  each  cit}'  to  do  a  large  number  of  things  together  in  order 
to  secure  good  results.  The  pump  in  every  j^ard  has  given 
way  to  the  system  of  waterworks,  generally  owned  or 
managed  by  the  city;  the  lantern  which  our  forefathers 
carried  at  night  is  replaced  by  street  lights;  and  many  other 
things  have  been  given  over  to  the  city  government  because 
they  can  be  done  better,  more  easily,  or  more  cheaply  under 
public  management  than  under  private  enterprise. 

Public  Enterprises  in  the  City. — One  of  the  most  im- 
portant kinds  of  work  undertaken  by  the  government  of 
any  city  is  the  endeavor  to  make  the  city  itself  a  safe  and 
convenient  place  in  which  to  live.  With  this  purpose  in 
view,  the  city  builds  streets  and  keeps  them  clean,  lights 
them  at  night,  furnishes  policemen  whose  work  it  is  to  keep 

19 


20  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

order  and  prevent  crime,  arranges  for  the  trial  of  persons 
who  may  be  accused  of  committing  certain  offenses,  and 
provides  firemen  to  make  the  city  as  safe  as  possible  from  the 
danger  of  spreading  flames.  Let  us  look  more  closely  at 
these  valuable  public  enterprises. 

Advantages  of  Having  Good  Streets. — Nearly  every 
modern  city  (except  perhaps  a  few  of  the  smallest  ones) 
does  a  good  deal  of  street  paving.  Even  quite  small  cities 
generally  have  their  chief  business  streets  well  paved.  This 
work  is  done  for  many  reasons.  Well-paved  streets  make 
travel  easy  and  prevent  many  accidents  to  both  foot- 
passengers  and  vehicles.  They  are  also  of  great  value  to 
business,  as  they  make  it  easy  for  purchasers  to  visit  stores, 
and  for  dealers. to  deliver  goods.  They  improve  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  city,  make  it  much  more  desirable  as  a  place 
of  residence  than  it  would  be  without  them,  and  conse- 
quently add  to  the  value  of  the  property  which  borders 
upon  the  paved  streets.  For  all  these  reasons,  every  pro- 
gressive city  is  anxious  to  maintain  good  streets. 

Methods  of  Paving  Streets. — Large  cities  often  have 
their  own  force  of  laborers  to  carry  on  the  work  of  building 
streets;  but  smaller  ones,  which  build  only  a  few  streets 
each  year,  generally  pay  a  contractor  for  doing  the  work. 
The  material  of  which  streets  are  made  varies  with  the 
amount  of  traffic  that  will  probably  pass  over  the  street, 
the  financial  condition  of  the  city,  the  ease  of  obtaining 
material,  and  many  other  factors.  Thus,  a  street  running 
from  a  large  freight  station  to  the  chief  business  section  of 
the  city  would  naturally  have  to  be  paved  with  much  heavier 
and  tougher  material  than  a  side  street  containing  private 
houses.  A  city  which  was  already  very  much  in  debt 
might  have  to  use  cheaper  and  poorer  material  than  one 


THE  CITY  AND  ITS  WORK  21 

which  was  just  beginning  to  make  improvements  and  owed 
no  debts.  A  city  located  near  a  granite  quarry  would 
probably  use  granite  slabs  or  blocks,  while  one  located 
where  asphalt  can  readily  be  obtained  would  be  likely  to 
pave  with  asphalt.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  freight 
charges  or  other  shipping  expenses  would,  as  a  rule,  be  much 
less  on  the  material  near  by,  thus  making  it  considerably 
cheaper  for  the  citj^  than  material  brought  from  a  long  dis- 
tance. All  these  considerations,  and  many  others,  must  be 
kept  in  mind  bj'  the  city  authorities  when  they  are  deciding 
upon  the  material  for  streets. 

Paying  for  Street  Construction. — There  rre  several 
methods  of  paying  for  city  streets.  Sometimes  the  city 
authorities  compel  the  owners  of  property  which  adjoins  a 
street  to  pay  for  having  it  paved.  The  value  of  property 
is  increased  so  much  by  well-paved  streets  that  this  is  con- 
sidered quite  proper  in  the  case  of  residence  streets.  Main 
thoroughfares,  however,  are  sometimes  paid  for  by  the  city 
itself.  The  money  needed  to  pay  for  this  work  is  borrowed 
by  the  city,  which  levies  taxes  to  pay  the  interest  on  this 
loan  and  to  repay  later  the  sum  originally  borrowed.  This 
method  is  used  in  order  to  let  everyone  share  the  cost  of 
streets  which  everj^one  uses.  More  often,  the  property 
owners  along  main  thoroughfares  are  taxed  to  pay  a  part 
of  the  cost  of  improvement,  while  the  city  pays  the  re- 
mainder. 

Keeping  the  Streets  Clean. — All  up-to-date  cities  not 
only  build  their  streets,  but  keep  them  as  clean  as  possible. 
Dirty  streets  are  a  disgrace  to  any  city.  They  are  not  only 
ugly  and  a  great  nuisance  to  all  who  must  walk  or  ride 
through  them,  but  they  mean  a  loss  of  many  dollars  to  busi- 
ness men,  in  keeping  customers  away.    Moreover,  as  breed- 


22  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

ing  places  for  germs,  which  the  wind  distributes  everywhere, 
dirty  streets  are  a  menace  to  pubhc  health. 

In  small  cities  the  streets  are  generally  cleaned  by  men 
with  brooms,  shovels,  and  carts,  or  by  machine  sweepers. 
In  larger  cities  these  same  methods  are  used,  and  in  addition 
it  is  customary  to  wash  the  streets  late  at  night  by  flushing 
them  v/ith  water  from  a  large  hose.     Other  methods  of 


A  street  cleaner  at  work.     The  street  cleaners  of  New  York  City 
are  often  called  "white  wings"  because  of  their  white  uniforms. 

cleaning  have  been  tried,  and  it  is  the  hope  of  experts  that 
a  good  vacuum  cleaner  may  soon  be  perfected,  which  will 
not  be  choked  by  paper  and  sticks.  Some  cities  sprinkle 
their  streets  with  oil  to  keep  down  the  dust,  and  in  summer 
many  sprinkle  with  water,  which  not  only  lessens  the  dust 
nuisance,  but  cools  the  atmosphere. 

Removal  of  Snow. — The  question  of  snow  removal  is  a 
very  serious  one,  especially  in  the  larger  cities,  where  thou- 
sands of  dollars  are  lost  if  traffic  is  tied  up  for  even  a  few 


THE  CITY  AND  ITS  WORK  23 

hours.  It  is  usually  difficult  to  find  enough  extra  men  to 
help  the  regular  street-cleaning  force  in  speedily  removing 
snow.  Cities  have  experimented  for  years  in  the  hope  of 
finding  some  quick  and  cheap  method  of  clearing  the  streets 
after  a  snowfall,  but  they  have  not  yet  developed  any  system 
which  is  wholly  satisfactory. 

In  many  cities  snow  is  shoveled  into  heaps  and  carted 
away;  in  others  it  is  shoveled  into  large  sewers;  and  in  a 
few  Northern  cities  it  is  packed  into  a  firm  sheet  by  means 
of  rollers,  and  allowed  to  remain  on  the  ground  all  winter. 
This  method  would  not  be  satisfactory  except  in  cold  cli- 
mates; if  used  elsewhere,  the  streets  would  be  filled  with 
melting  snow  every  few  days  during  the  winter. 

Well-lighted  Streets. — In  addition  to  cleaning  its  streets, 
the  modern  city  takes  pains  to  keep  them  well  liglited  at 
night.  This  is  not  only  a  great  convenience,  but  it  has  been 
found  to  lessen  the  number  of  accidents,  as  well  as  the 
number  of  robberies,  burglaries,  and  other  crimes  usually 
committed  in  darkness.  Business  men  find  that  it  is  of 
advantage  to  them.  They  can  show  their  goods  in  attrac- 
tively decorated  windows  and  can  use  other  advertising 
devices,  which  would  be  of  no  value  unless  the  streets  were 
lighted  so  well  that  large  numbers  of  people  would  pass  over 
them  each  night. 

When  a  city  is  about  to  install  a  system  of  street  lighting, 
there  are  many  things  which  it  must  take  into  consideration. 
It  must  try  to  obtain  good  lighting  at  moderate  cost.  Gas 
and  electricity  are  the  principal  fuels  used  in  street  lights 
today,  though  a  few  small  cities  still  use  kerosene  or  some 
other  inflammable  liquid.  Which  of  these  fuels  is  selected 
depends  on  several  considerations,  such  as  cost,  quality, 
and  dependability.    Thus,  a  city  located  in  a  gas  field  would 


24  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

probably  use  gas  because  it  was  cheaper  than  electricity; 
but  if  the  gas  flow  failed  several  times,  causing  great  in- 
convenience and  suffering  and  the  loss  of  a  good  deal  of 
money,  the  city  might  decide  that  electricity  was  a  prefer- 
able form  of  fuel,  even  though  more  costly.  Of  course,  no 
kind  of  lighting  system  is  worth  while,  no  matter  how  cheap 
it  may  be,  unless  it  keeps  the  streets  well  lighted. 

Distribution  and  Power  of  Street  Lights. — The  distribu- 
tion of  lights  and  the  power  of  each  lamp  are  matters  which 
require  thought  and  care.  Sufficient  light  for  a  residence 
street,  where  few  people  pass  by  night,  would  be  quite  insuf- 
ficient for  a  main  thoroughfare,  where  there  are  pedestrians 
and  vehicles  in  large  numbers.  The  residence  street  re- 
quires only  enough  lights  of  moderate  power  to  enable 
persons  to  pass  along  it  without  danger  of  falling  over  curbs, 
to  protect  them  from  being  surprised  by  thieves,  and  to 
protect  houses  from  attacks  by  burglars.  In  the  business 
section  or  the  theatrical  section  of  a  city,  much  more  light 
is  necessary,  as  the  danger  of  collisions  between  vehicles 
increases  with  the  number  of  vehicles,  and  the  difficulties 
of  crossing  the  street  on  foot  are  much  greater.  The  streets 
should  be  so  light  that  a  person  can  cross  them  rapidly, 
without  danger  of  being  struck  by  an  automobile  as  he 
hesitates  which  way  to  turn.  Street  intersections  should 
have  powerful  lamps  so  placed  as  to  throw  light  for  many 
yards  in  every  direction.  Parks  should  be  lighted  thor- 
oughly, so  that  no  pickpocket  or  other  criminal  can  be  con- 
cealed in  them;  but  the  lamps  should  be  of  moderate  power, 
in  order  that  citizens  may  enjoy  the  parks  without  being 
annoyed  by  a  strong  glare. 

When  a  city  has  well-constructed,  well-cleaned,  and  well- 
lighted  streets,  and  at  the  same  time  is  not  paying  un- 


THE  CITY  AND  ITS  WORK  25 

reasonable  prices  for  these  benefits,  it  has  done  a  great  deal 
toward  making  itself  a  desirable  place  in  which  to  Uve. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  a  local  government?    Give  examples. 

2.  Give  examples  to  show  that  when  people  collect  in  cities,  it  is 
necessary  for  them  to  do  many  things  together. 

3.  Why  would  it  not  he  just  as  well  for  cities  to  let  each  prop- 
erty owner  pave  the  street  before  his  own  property,  instead  of 
undertaking  this  work  and  charging  the  owner  for  it? 

4.  Of  what  materials  are  the  streets  in  your  own  city  made? 
Compare  the  materials  used  in  the  chief  business  streets  and  in 
residence  streets. 

5.  What  system  of  street  cleaning  is  employed  in  your  city? 
Are  the  streets  kept  clean?  Can  you  suggest  any  methods  of  im- 
proving the  street-cleaning  service?  Are  boxes  for  trash  placed 
at  frequent  intervals?  Is  their  use  made  compulsory  by  ordinance? 
Is  the  ordinance  enforced? 

6.  Is  the  problem  of  snow  removal  a  difficult  one  in  your  city? 
What  are  the  chief  difficulties?  What  methods  are  used?  Can 
you  suggest  remedies  or  im]3rovements? 

7.  What  system  of  street  lighting  is  used  in  your  city?  Is  it 
satisfactory?    Are  the  lights  well  located? 

8.  Find  what  it  cost  the  city  last  year  to  keep  its  streets  cleaned 
and  lighted.  Try  to  obtain  figures  for  other  cities  of  about  the  same 
size.  Do  you  judge  that  your  city  is  obtaining  satisfactory  results 
for  the  money  it  is  spending?  Ought  it  to  spend  more  money  or 
less  money  on  these  services?    Give  reasons. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  CITY;  THE  POLICE  DEPARTMENT  AND  JUSTICE 

The  Police  Force. — In  all  cities,  no  matter  how  small, 
there  are  ahnost  sure  to  be  persons  who  would  commit 
crimes  if  they  were  not  afraid  of  punishment.  To  protect 
the  other  inhabitants  against  such  persons,  a  police  force  is 
provided  by  every  city.  In  small  cities  this  force  may  con- 
sist of  a  single  marshal;  in  large  cities  it  may  include  many 
patrolmen,  mounted  policemen,  detectives,  officers  of  vari- 
ous ranks,  and  a  city  commissioner  who  has  charge  of  the 
police  department.  Whether  the  police  force  is  small  or 
large,  its  first  duty  is  to  prevent  crime,  in  order  that  the 
citizens  may  go  about  their  affairs  without  danger. 

Prevention  of  Crime. — In  small  cities,  where  everybody 
is  known  by  everybody  else,  and  a  stranger  of  suspicious  ap- 
pearance would  be  noticed  immediately,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  patrol  the  streets.  In  large  cities,  however,  where  most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  strangers  to  one  another,  policemen 
must  walk  about  the  streets  constantly  and  prevent  crime 
by  various  means.  For  example,  if  a  policeman  sees  a  ragged 
and  vicious-looking  man  studying  the  outside  of  a  splendid 
mansion,  as  if  he  were  trying  to  find  an  easy  place  to  enter, 
the  policeman  orders  him  to  move  on.  If  the  man  is  known 
to  be  a  burglar,  the  policeman  may  arrest  him  on  the  charge 
of  loitering.  If  a  policeman  sees  some  suspicious-looking 
person  drop  a  satchel  in  the  hallway  of  a  public  building, 
just  after  letters  have  been  received  from  anarchists  threat- 
ening to  dynamite  the  public  buildings,  the  policeman  tells 

26 


THE  POLICE  DEPARTMENT  AND  JUSTICE         27 

the  man  to  pick  up  the  satchel  and  accompany  him  to  the 
poHce  station  for  examination.  Great  numbers  of  crimes 
are  prevented  by  watchful  and  efficient  policemen. 

Detection  of  Crime. — Of  course,  it  is  impossible  for  any 
police  force  to  prevent  crime  and  misdemeanors  entirely. 
A  few  persons  will  commit  evil  deeds  despite  every  pre- 
caution, and  large  numl)ers  of  persons  commit  misdemeanors 
by  breaking  city  ordinances  against  speeding  in  auto- 
mobiles, riding  bicycles  on  sidewalks,  allowing  poultry  to 
run  at  large,  and  similar  actions.  When  persons  have  com- 
mitted offenses,  whether  great  or  small,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
police  force  to  arrest  them  and  luring  them  before  the  proper 
authorities.  This  is  usually  easy  in  the  case  of  small  misde- 
meanors; but  in  the  case  of  great  crimes,  such  as  burglary 
and  murder,  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  trace  the  guilty  per- 
son. In  this  case  "plain-clothes  men,"  or  detectives,  are 
set  to  work  to  make  searching  inquiries  and  to  do  their 
best  to  locate  the  criminal.  By  such  means  as  this,  the 
police  department  tries  to  make  the  city  safe. 

Traffic  Police. — Policemen  have  many  other  duties  than 
these,  however.  In  the  larger  cities  there  are  numbers  of 
traffic  policemen.  These  do  not  patrol  the  streets,  but 
stand  at  cross-streets  where  thousands  of  cars,  trucks,  other 
vehicles,  and  pedestrians  pass  every  day,  and  signal  "Go  " 
or  "Stop,"  so  that  the  great  streams  of  traffic  may  move 
without  causing  accidents.  These  policemen  watch  small 
children  and  elderly  and  crippled  persons,  and  see  that  theyj 
cross  the  streets  in  safety.  Strangers  in  large  cities  find 
policemen  a  great  help,  as  they  are  always  ready  to  tell 
where  certain  buildings  are  located,  what  cars  should  be 
taken  to  reach  various  sections  of  the  city,  and  other  things 
of  this  sort. 


28  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Women  on  the  Police  Force. — Beside  the  ordinary  pohce 
force,  many  cities  now  have  poHcewomen,  whose  particular 
duty  it  is  to  care  for  the  safety  of  women,  girls,  and  children. 
These  policewomen  have  authority  to  make  arrests,  and  do 


A  class  being  instrufted  in  the  art  of  Americanized  jiu  jitsu,  as  adopted 
for  police  purposes  in  the  Police  Department  of  New  York  City.  This 
shows  a  more  humane  way  of  handling  prisoners  than  using  the  night  stick 
to  get  them  under  restraint. 

SO  whenever  it  seems  necessary;  but  their  chief  work  is  of  a 
preventive  nature.  If  a  policewoman  sees  a  child  in  the 
company  of  adult  criminals,  for  example,  she  investigates 
his  home  life.  In  case  his  parents  are  respectable,  she  tells 
them  of  their  child's  evil  companions  and  asks  them  to 
help  her  in  keeping  him  away  from  such  influences.    If  the 


THE  POLICE  DEPARTMENT  AND  JUSTICE         29 

parents  are  unfit  to  have  the  care  of  a  child,  the  poUce- 
woman  takes  measures  to  have  him  placed  in  better  sur- 
roundings. PoHcewomen  have  proved  so  beneficial  that 
more  and  more  cities  are  employing  them. 

Training  Schools  for  Policemen. — New  York  City  has  a 
very  interesting  training  school  for  policemen,  where  they 
learn  how  to  perform  every  sort  of  task  that  is  likely  to  come 
their  way,  including  first  aid  to  the  injured.  Philadelphia 
and  Chicago  have  similar  schools,  and  as  the  movement 
spreads,  we  may  expect  to  find  in  every  large  city  a  most 
efficient  police  force. 

Functions  of  the  Judge. — The  policeman  is  not  the  only 
person  concerned  in  making  the  city  safe  from  lawbreakers. 
It  is  necessary  for  every  person  accused  of  crime  or  misde- 
meanor to  be  tried,  in  order  to  discover  whether  he  is  guilty 
or  whether  he  has  been  arrested  by  mistake,  and  is  innocent 
of  any  wrongdoing.  Even  if  he  has  done  the  thing  of  which 
he  is  accused,  there  may  be  "extenuating  circumstances  " — 
that  is,  reasons  why  his  guilt  is  not  so  great  as  it  seemed  be- 
fore the  case  was  investigated.  A  magistrate  or  a  judge 
must  examine  every  person  arrested,  determine  whether 
he  is  deserving  of  punishment,  and,  in  some  cases,  decide 
what  that  punishment  shall  be. 

The  Purpose  of  Punishment. — The  word  'punishment,  as 
used  here,  does  not  mean  revenge.  When  a  person  has 
broken  the  speed  laws  of  a  city  and  is  fined  ten  dollars,  this 
penalty  is  not  given  in  a  spirit  of  vengeance.  When  of- 
fenders are  punished  by  the  officers  of  the  law,  the  punish- 
ment is  given  in  order  to  keep  the  lawbreaker  from  repeating 
his  offense.  It  is  given  in  order  to  improve  the  conduct  of 
the  wrongdoer,  and  in  order  to  save  others  from  suffering 
because  of  his  misconduct. 


so 


EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


Police  Courts. — The  police  courts  and  other  city  courts 
never  try  persons  for  very  great  crimes.  A  man  accused  of 
murder,  for  example,  is  considered  dangerous  to  the  whole 
state,  and  his  trial  is  conducted  by  higher  courts  than  those 


In  the  jiivcnil'j  court  shown  hero,  every  child  will  be  kindly  ticated,  and 
encouraged  and  helped  in  the  right  direction. 

of  the  city.  In  the  city  courts  cases  are  tried  which  concern 
the  breaking  of  city  ordinances,  the  theft  of  small  sums,  and 
other  minor  matters. 

Civil  Courts. — Besides  the  courts  where  offenses  are  tried, 
there  are  city  courts  which  settle  legal  disputes  over  small 
matters.  If  a  grocer  sues  to  collect  a  bill  of  a  few  dollars, 
which  the  customer  declares  he  has  already  paid,  this  con- 
troversy will  be  decided  in  a  municipal  court.  Such  cases 
as  these,  where  there  is  no  accusation  of  crime  or  misde- 
meanor, but  merely  a  dispute  about  money  or  other  prop- 


THE  POLICE  DEPARTMENT  AND  JUSTICE         31 

erty,  are  called  civil  cases,  and  the  courts  in  which  they  are 
tried  are  called  civil  courts. 

Traffic  Courts  and  Juvenile  Courts. — Some  cities  have 
special  courts  for  different  classes  of  persons.  Among  these 
are  traffic  courts  for  persons  accused  of  speeding  or  refus- 
ing to  stop  when  ordered  to  do  so  by  traffic  policemen, 
and  of  similar  offenses;  and  juvenile  courts,  where  children 
are  tried.  Before  these  courts  were  established,  children 
who  were  accused  of  small  offenses  were  tried  in  the  same 
courts  with  hardened  criminals.  This  made  the  children 
feel  that  they  were  looked  upon  as  criminals,  and  often 
discouraged  them  so  much  that  it  led  them  to  reckless  con- 
duct. In  the  juvenile  courts,  the  children  who  have  done 
wrong  are  treated  with  kindness  and  are  helped  to  do  better, 
perhaps  by  being  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  pro- 
bation officer,  who  acts  as  a  kind  of  guardian,  keeps  in  touch 
with  the  children's  school  records,  and  uses  every  possible 
means  of  encouraging  them  to  do  right.  This  often  prevents 
them  from  growing  up  as  lawbreakers.  Small  cities  seldom 
have  many  special  courts ;  but  in  these  cities  it  is  customary 
to  appoint  a  probation  officer  to  care  for  children  who  are 
accused  of  wrongdoing. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  cities  of  today  are  using  every  means 
at  their  command  to  prevent  crime,  and  to  keep  those  who 
have  once  offended  against  the  law  from  doing  so  again. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  large  is  the  police  force  in  your  city?  How  is  it  or- 
ganized? 

2.  "Wliat  salaries  are  paid  the  members  of  the  local  police  force? 
What  qualifications  are  required?  Are  any  training  and  equip- 
ment supplied? 


32  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

3.  Do  the  members  of  the  poUce  force  perform  any  duties  besides 
the  arrest  of  offenders? 

4.  Are  many  arrests  made,  in  comparison  with  the  offenses  that 
are  known  to  have  been  committed,  or  do  a  large  proportion  of 
guilty  persons  escape  arrest?  In  the  latter  case,  can  you  learn 
whether  this  is  due  to  a  shortage  of  policemen  or  to  lack  of  activity 
or  efficiency  in  the  force? 

5.  What  courts  are  held  in  your  city?  (If  your  city  is  very 
small,  you  will  probably  find  that  the  only  court  is  that  held  by  a 
justice  of  the  peace) .  If  there  are  several  courts,  tell  the  kinds 
of  cases  that  are  tried  in  each  one. 

6.  If  there  is  no  juvenile  court  in  your  city,  learn  all  that  you 
can  from  books  and  magazines  about  juvenile  courts  in  other  cities. 
Can  you  tell  why  these  have  spread  very  rapidly  since  they  were 
first  established? 

7.  Why  must  there  be  policemen  and  courts  and  prisons? 

8.  What  are  the  objects  of  punishment? 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  CITY;  FIRE  PROTECTION 

Annual  Loss  from  Fire. — Nearly  every  modern  city  is 
doing  a  great  deal  to  protect  its  residents  and  their  prop- 
erties from  the  danger  of  fire.  This  work,  however,  has 
not  progressed  so  well  in  the  United  States  as  in  other 
countries;  and  the  average  yearly  loss  for  each  individual 
here  is  actually  ten  times  as  great  as  it  is  in  some  parts  of 
Europe. 

Fire-Fighting  Apparatus. — For  one  thing  our  American 
cities  deserve  great  praise;  namely,  the  excellent  fire-fighting 
apparatus  which 'they  provide.  Even  the  small  cities  gen- 
erally have  good  engines  and  ladder  trucks,  hose,  and  other 
necessary  apparatus.  Where  the  water  pressure  of  a  city 
is  not  strong  and  steady,  it  is  customary  to  provide  chemical 
engines,  which  do  not  depend  upon  water,  as  the  chem- 
icals which  they  contain  will  extinguish  an  ordinary  fire. 
Formerly  all  apparatus  was  drawn  by  horses,  but  motors 
are  now  generally  in  use. 

The  Firemen. — Nearly  every  city  has  stations  in  which 
the  fire-fighting  apparatus  is  kept.  In  many  cities  the 
fire-station  provides  sleeping  quarters  for  several  men, 
so  that  there  will  always  be  men  ready  to  go  out  with  the 
engines  at  a  moment's  notice.  These  firemen  are  paid  by 
the  city  and  are  carefully  drilled  in  their  duties.  They  are 
taught  how  to  arrange  their  clothing  when  they  go  to  bed, 
so  that  they  can  dress  in  a  few  seconds  if  a  fire  alarm  comes 
during  the  night.     They  are  taught  how  to  take  out  the 

33 


34 


EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


engines  and  all  the  apparatus  in  the  quickest  possible  way, 
for  every  second  counts  when  a  fire  is  to  be  conquered. 
They  are  drilled  in  the  best  methods  of  using  the  various 
kinds  of  apparatus,  taught  how  to  enter  a  burning  building 


These  firemen  are  fighting  the  flames  which  threaten  to  destroy  the  build- 
ing, and  are  rescuing  inmates.  By  their  help,  everyone  will  escape,  even 
though  the  stairways  in  the  house  are  burning. 


with  the  least  possible  risk,  drilled  in  dropping  persons 
carefully  from  windows  into  large  nets  and  in  jumping  into 
these  nets  from  great  heights,  and  trained  in  other  methods 
of  saving  life  and  property.  In  some  cities  they  are  required 
to  inspect  certam  districts  from  time  to  time,  and  to  plan 
the  best  way  of  fighting  a  fire  if  one  should  break  out  in 
any  section. 

Organization  of  the  Fire  Department. — In  the  largest 


THE  CITY;  FIRE  PROTECTION  35 

cities  there  is  a  commissioner  or  similar  official  who  has 
entire  charge  of  the  fire  department.  Under  him  there  are 
captains  and  other  officers  who  have  charge  of  the  fire- 
stations  in  various  districts.  All  these  men,  as  well  as  the 
firemen,  are  paid  by  the  city  to  give  their  full  time  to  their 
work.  Minor  cities  have  some  paid  firemen  and  other 
volunteer  helpers;  while  in  the  smallest  cities,  which  can 
hardly  afford  to  pay  men  to  fight  perhaps  ten  or  twelve  fires 
in  a  year,  there  are  generally  volunteer  fire  companies. 

Fire-Alarm  Signals. — Every  city  has  some  system,  of 
fire-alarm  signals.  Some  cities  have  whistles,  some  have 
bells  or  gongs,  and  others  have  electric  signals  which  flash  a 
warning  at  the  fire-station.  We  are  all  familiar  with  some 
of  the  arrangements  by  which  these  signals  not  only  show 
that  there  is  a  fire,  but  direct  the  firemen  toward  it.  Thus, 
a  fire  in  the  first  ward  of  a  city  may  ])e  announced  by  one 
long  blast  of  the  fire  whistle;  a  fire  in  the  second  ward  by 
two  blasts,  etc.  This  works  well  in  a  small  city;  but  in  a 
larger  one,  where  it  is  necessary  to  give  more  definite  signals, 
the  electric  alarms  designate  the  block  where  the  fire  is  rag- 
ing. Of  course,  the  telephone  is  extremely  valuable  in  giving 
notice  of  a  fire. 

Why  Fire  Losses  Are  Large  in  the  United  States. — With 
all  these  arrangements  for  conquering  fire,  how  is  it  that 
we  have  such  heavy  losses?  One  answer  is  that  we  are  not 
careful,  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  to  prevent  fires 
from  starting.  Fire  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  prov- 
erb that  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure. 
We  shall  never  reduce  our  great  annual  losses  to  a  low  figure, 
until  we  use  every  possible  means  of  preventing  fires  from 
starting.  Another  reason  for  our  heavy  losses  is  the  fact 
that  in  many  cities  the  laws  intended  to  protect  the  com- 


36  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

munity  from  the  danger  of  fire  are  not  enforced.  In  Ameri- 
can cities,  too,  there  are  many  frame  houses  with  shingle 
roofs,  while  in  most  European  cities  the  buildings  are  con- 
structed of  non-inflammable  material. 

The  Building  Code. — Most  cities  are  now^  taking  measures 
which  will  be  very  helpful  in  preventing  fires.  One  of  the 
most  important  of  these  is  the  adoption  of  a  building  code; 
that  is,  a  set  of  rules  laying  down  certain  requirements  for 
every  building  in  crowded  parts  of  the  city.  These  codes 
generally  require  that  all  theaters,  office  buildings,  or  other 
places  where  large  numbers  of  people  gather  must  be  of  fire- 
proof materials,  and  that  all  large  apartment  houses  must 
have  fireproof  walls.  All  buildings  of  every  sort  must  have 
fireproof  roofs,  so  that  they  will  not  be  set  on  fire  by  flying 
sparks.  These  are  only  a  few  examples  of  the  many  care- 
ful provisions  laid  down  in  building  codes.  Cities  often  com- 
pel the  owners  of  old  buildings,  which  were  constructed 
before  the  codes  were  adopted,  to  make  improvements  that 
will  lessen  the  danger  of  fir(>  in  them. 

Protection  through  Control  of  Business. — Besides  the 
building  code,  practically  all  cities  have  ordinances  regulat- 
ing the  kinds  of  business  that  may  be  carried  on  in  certain 
districts  and  in  certain  types  of  buildings.  For  example, 
nobody  would  be  allowed  to  manufacture  gunpowder  in  a 
crowded  district  of  any  city  or  in  a  wooden  building. 
Garages,  and  other  places  where  inflammable  or  explosive 
materials  are  kept,  must  be  in  fireproof  buildings,  as  a  rule. 
Many  cities  prohibit  the  storing  of  excelsior,  shavings,  old 
papers,  and  similar  materials  in  any  cellar  or  l)asement.  All 
the  larger  cities  have  inspectors  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
the  ordinances  in  regard  to  fire  are  obeyed,  and  that  persons 
refusing  to  obey  them  are  punished.     As  more  and  more 


THE  CITY;  FIRE  PROTECTION  37 

cities  adopt  these  wise  measures,  the  fire  losses  of  the  United 
States  will  be  greatly  decreased. 

Educating  the  Citizens  in  Fire  Prevention. — Another 
important  work  undertaken  by  many  cities  is  that  of  educat- 
ing the  citizens  in  fire  prevention.  "Fire-fighting  week," 
or  some  other  campaign  period,  is  advertised  in  the  news- 
papers, and  many  articles  are  published  showing  the 
various  causes  of  fire  and  the  way  to  remove  these  causes. 
Public  speakers  discuss  the  subject.  Every  citizen  is  asked 
to  clean  his  premises  thoroughly  and  remove  all  inflammable 
trash.  School  children  are  instructed  as  to  the  dangers  aris- 
ing from  defective  electric  wiring,  or  from  ashes  which  may 
contain  live  coals,  or  similar  causes  of  combustion.  Per- 
haps a  number  of  pamphlets  are  prepared  for  school  children 
of  different  grades,  and  are  used  in  the  schools  as  reading 
lessons,  so  that  every  pupil  is  given  suitable  instruction 
as  to  the  dangers  of  fire  and  the  methods  of  preventing  it. 

By  such  means  as  these,  great  progress  is  being  made  in 
lowering  the  fire  losses  of  many  cities.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  education  in  such  matters  will  soon  become  universal, 
and  that  everywhere  laws  will  be  passed  imposing  heavy 
penalties  upon  persons  whose  carelessness  exposes  their  com- 
munity to  the  risk  of  destruction  by  fire.  We  may  then  ex- 
pect to  see  our  fire  losses  reduced  to  a  very  low  figure  and 
our  cities  made  much  safer  from  this  terrible  danger. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  large  is  the  fire  department  of  your  city?  Are  the  mem- 
bers paid,  or  is  it  a  volunteer  organization? 

2.  What  fire-fighting  apparatus  and  equipment  does  your  city 
possess? 

3.  Visit  a  fire-station  and  learn  all  you  can  about  the  city's 
methods  of  extinguishing  fires. 

827B0 


38  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

4.  Obtain  a  copy  of  the  building  code  of  your  city  and  learn  the 
principal  requirements  laid  down  for  buildings  in  the  fire  zone. 
What  is  meant  by  a  fire  zone?  Why  is  it  not  necessary  to  make  re- 
quirements quite  so  strict  in  regard  to  buildings  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  city? 

5.  Try  to  learn  how  much  property  in  your  city  was  destroyed 
by  fire  during  the  last  year. 

6.  How  much  of  this  fire  loss  was  covered  by  insurance?  See 
if  you  can  think  out  the  reason  why  it  is  a  disadvantage  to  everyone 
when  property  is  destroyed  by  fire,  even  though  it  is  insured. 
(Suggestions:  What  will  be  the  effect  on  insurance  rates  if  there 
are  many  large  fires?  What  will  be  the  effect  on  prices  if  large 
quantities  of  goods  are  destroyed?  Suppose  the  city's  electric 
plant  is  destroyed  by  fire.  What  difference  will  this  make,  if  the 
plant  is  insured?) 

7.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  fire  prevention,  and  write  a  report 
on  this  subject. 


CHAPTER  VII 
MUNICIPAL  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 

Taking  Pride  in  the  Health  Record. — Every  modern  city 
is  interested  in  taking  measures  to  keep  its  citizens  in  good 
health.  It  is  now  understood  that,  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, a  large  number  of  cases  of  contagious  disease  and  a 
high  death  rate  are  a  disgrace  to  a  city,  for  they  show  that 
the  sanitary  conditions  are  not  what  they  should  be.  No 
city  wants  a  bad  record  in  regard  to  such  matters,  and  for 
this  reason  some  kind  of  work  for  the  benefit  of  public 
health  is  found  practically  everywhere.  All  communities, 
of  course,  do  not  have  equally  high  standards  in  regard  to 
public  health  activities.  We  shall  examine  the  work  done 
by  the  more  advanced  cities. 

Organization  of  the  Health  Department. — Generally  we 
find  a  committee  known  as  a  board  of  health,  which  has 
authority  to  issue  orders  in  regard  to  matters  that  concern 
the  public  health.  Sometimes  we  find  also  a  health  com- 
missioner, whose  work  it  is  to  enforce  these  orders;  inspec- 
tors who  must  investigate  conditions  in  various  parts  of  the 
city,  reporting  instances  where  the  orders  of  the  board  of 
health  have  been  violated;  and  various  other  officers. 

The  Sanitary  Code. — Besides  the  orders  issued  from 
time  to  time  by  the  board  of  health  (or  by  the  municipal 
health  officer  in  some  cities),  we  find  in  all  advanced  cities 
a  set  of  regulations  which  everyone  must  obey,  called  a 
sanitary  code.  These  rules  oblige  all  persons  to  keep  their 
premises  free  from  filth  and  make  many  other  useful  re- 

39 


40  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

quirements.  In  some  cities  the  health  authorities  enforce 
the  sanitary  code,  while  in  others  there  are  special  sanitary 
authorities  who  have  charge  of  this  work. 

Quarantine. — Among  the  rules  of  the  board  of  health  in 
almost  every  city  we  find  provisions  for  the  control  of 
disease.  Persons  suffering  from  certain  contagious  diseases 
must  remain  at  home;  and  if  the  disease  is  of  a  serious 
nature,  or  if  it  is  very  contagious,  nobody  is  allowed  to  enter 
or  to  leave  the  house  where  the  patient  is.  When  a  house 
is  placed  under  these  restrictions,  it  is  said  to  be  under 
quarantine.  Usually  a  large  placard  is  placed  upon  it, 
giving  the  name  of  the  disease  from  which  an  inmate  is 
suffering. 

Care  of  Health  in  the  Schools. — Other  rules  often  made 
by  boards  of  health  (or  by  boards  of  education  in  some  cases) 
require  every  pupil  in  the  public  schools  to  be  vaccinated, 
and  to  be  examined  by  school  physicians  once  or  twice  a 
year.  This  is  done  in  order  that  any  serious  trouble  may  be 
discovered  in  its  early  stages,  while  it  can  still  be  cured ;  and 
that  any  defects,  such  as  poor  vision,  enlarged  tonsils,  or 
adenoids,  may  receive  proper  attention.  In  many  cities 
the  pupils  are  not  only  given  these  examinations  from  time 
to  time,  but  are  sent  by  their  teachers  to  the  school  physi- 
cians whenever  they  seem  to  be  ill.  If  the  trouble  is  conta- 
gious, the  child  is  sent  home,  and  the  board  of  health  is 
notified,  so  that  the  home  may  be  placed  under  quarantine. 
By  these  means  it  is  nearly  always  possible  to  prevent  the 
epidemics  of  contagious  disease  which  used  to  be  common 
in  our  schools. 

Sanitation  in  Connection  with  Food. — Boards  of  health 
make  rules  that  persons  who  sell  soda-water  and  ice  cream, 
persons  who  keep  restaurants,  and  all  others  engaged  in 


.MUNICIPAL  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION  41 

similar  trades  must  sterilize  the  dishes  and  silverware 
used  by  each  customer.  If  this  is  properly  done,  any 
germs  of  contagious  disease  which  are  left  on  the  dishes  by  a 
customer  will  be  killed;  while  if  his  dishes  are  washed  with 
others,  but  not  sterilized,  the  germs  may  be  distributed 
over  the  other  dishes,  and  many  other  customers  may  con- 
tract the  disease.  For  similar  reasons,  barbers  are  required 
to  sterilize  their  combs,  brushes,  towels,  and  other  imple- 
ments. 

Groceries,  meat  markets,  dairies,  and  all  places  where 
food  is  sold  must  be  kept  in  clean  and  sanitary  condition. 
The  food  itself  must  l)e  kept  in  such  a  way  that  no  dust  and 
dirt  can  reach  it,  and  no  flies  or  other  insects  can  touch  it. 

Sanitary  Inspection  of  Public  Buildings. — Tenements, 
theaters,  factories,  stores,  and  other  places  where  many 
people  gather  together  are  carefully  inspected  by  the 
health  authorities,  to  see  that  they  are  in  accordance  with 
all  the  orders  of  the  board  of  health  and  all  the  rules  of  the 
sanitary  code.  Everything  about  them  must  be  clean;  no 
filth  must  be  allowed  to  remain;  and  any  conditions  which 
may  be  dangerous  to  health  must  be  remedied.  This  is 
important  for  private  houses,  also,  but  it  is  particularly 
necessary  in  crowded  buildings. 

Free  Hospital  Service. — In  many  cities  the  board  of 
health  is  aided  in  its  work  by  medical  students,  who  are 
glad  to  gain  experience  by  helping  persons  too  poor  to  pay 
for  the  services  of  a  doctor.  Usually  the  best  physicians 
in  the  city  give  some  of  their  time  to  clinics,  or  classes, 
where  patients  may  come  and  receive  skilled  treatment 
without  charge.  There  are  usually  free  hospitals  in  large 
cities,  or  free  wards  of  hospitals  in  small  cities,  which  will 
receive  persons  who  are  unable  to  pay  for  the  particular 


42  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

care  they  need.  A  great  many  private  charitable  organ- 
izations are  also  ready  to  assist  the  board  of  health,  by 
sending  convalescent  persons  to  the  country  or  the  seashore 
to  regain  their  strength,  and  by  other  means. 

Health  Campaigns. — Most  boards  of  health  do  a  good 
deal  of  educational  work  by  means  of  newspaper  articles, 
lectures,  placards,  and  various  advertising  devices.  In 
this  way  they  teach  the  need  of  personal  cleanliness  and  the 
value  of  sanitary  surroundings.  They  show  how  babies 
should  be  fed,  bathed,  dressed,  and  treated  in  every  way. 
They  explain  how  contagious  diseases  spread  and  what 
measures  must  be  taken  to  check  them.  They  tell  of  the 
ways  in  which  mosquitoes  and  flies  spread  disease,  and 
encourage  campaigns  to  stamp  out  these  troublesome  in- 
sects. 

Other  Activities  of  the  Board  of  Health. — In  addition 
to  all  these  activities  and  other  similar  ones,  many  boards  of 
health  collect  statistics  which  are  useful  to  them  in  their 
work.  They  try  to  keep  records  of  all  births,  deaths,  and 
cases  of  contagious  disease  which  occur  in  the  city.  As  we 
have  already  seen,  the  death  rate  and  the  disease  rate  help 
to  show  whether  a  city  is  in  good  sanitary  condition  or  not. 
If  a  city  finds  these  figures  rising  too  much,  the  board  of 
health  usually  institutes  a  "clean-up  campaign."  When 
the  birth  of  a  child  is  registered,  in  some  cities,  a  notice  is 
sent  to  the  mother  telling  her  where  to  apply  for  advice  and 
help  in  case  she  has  any  difficulty  in  keeping  the  baby  well. 
Large  numbers  of  babies  die  before  they  are  a  year  old, 
just  because  their  mothers  are  poor  and  ignorant  and  do  not 
know  how  to  care  for  them.  By  helping  the  mothers  to 
learn  proper  methods  of  feeding  and  treating  them,  it  has 
been  found  possible  to  save  many  little  lives. 


MUNICIPAL  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION  43 

Who  Should  Serve  on  the  Board  of  Health. — Thus  we 
see  that  the  people  of  a  city  are  doing  an  important  work 
for  their  own  health  and  safety  when  they  establish  a  board 
of  health  and  give  it  authority  to  compel  all  persons  to  obey 
its  rules.  The  best  results  are  secured  when  physicians 
and  other  experts  in  health  and  sanitation  serve  on  the 
board  of  health.  If  these  cannot  be  olitained,  however, 
any  conscientious  and  able  person  who  will  accept  a  place 
on  this  board  can  render  valuable  services  to  his  fellow 
citizens.  Many  of  the  most  essential  measures  which  must 
be  taken  to  preserve  the  public  health  can  be  learned  by  any 
one  of  intelligence,  through  reading  and  observation.  There 
are  some  things,  naturally,  which  only  an  expert  can  fully 
understand;  but  no  city  need  be  discouraged  if  it  cannot 
obtain  highly  trained  members  for  its  board  of  health,  pro- 
vided that  those  who  do  serve  are  citizens  of  the  best  type. 
Everyone  should  cooperate  with  these  officials  in  trying 
to  make  the  city  sanitary  and  as  free  as  possible  from  con- 
tagious disease. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Who  are  the  members  of  the  board  of  health  in  your  city? 
How  are  they  chosen? 

2.  What  sanitary  regulations  are  in  force  in  your  city? 

3.  What  are  the  ordinances  in  regard  to  the  quarantine  of 
contagious  diseases? 

4.  Is  there  a  school  physician'  a  school  nurse,  or  any  medical 
or  sanitary  inspection  and  supervision  of  students? 

5.  Is  any  inspection  made  of  grocery  shops,  restaurants,  dairies, 
and  similar  places?  Try  to  secure  reports  made  by  inspectors. 
What  measures  have  been  taken  to  bring  about  improvements 
where  these  were  necessary? 

6.  Does  any  officer  in  your  city  or  county  collect  statistics  in 


44  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

regard  to  disease,  deaths,  and  births?    Try  to  secure  these  statistics 
for  the  past  year. 

7.  How  many  deaths  were  there  to  each  thousand  of  the  popu- 
lation in  your  city  last  year?  The  death  rate  per  thousand  in  New 
York  City  was  between  12  and  13  for  the  year  1920.  How  does 
your  city  compare? 

8.  Suggest  ways  in  which  the  sanitary  condition  of  your  city 
could  be  improved.  Has  the  city  held  a  "clean-up  campaign" 
recently? 

9.  Are  the  school  children  organized  to  fight  flies  and  mosqui- 
toes? Is  adequate  instruction  in  hygiene  given  in  the  schools? 
Are  the  schools  sanitary  and  well  ventilated? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  WATER  SUPPLY 

Need  of  an  Ample  Supply  of  Pure  Water. — A  very  im- 
portant factor  in  public  health  is  water.  If  a  city  is  to  be 
sanitary,  there  must  be  an  ample  supply  of  pure  water,  so 
that  every  person  may  bathe  often,  and  every  soiled  article 
or  dirty  floor  or  street  may  be  cleansed.  In  case  of  fire, 
too,  a  good  supply  of  water  is  needed,  with  a  pressure  that 
will  cause  it  to  shoot  many  feet.  There  must  not  only  be 
plenty  of  water  in  a  cit}^,  but  all  that  is  used  for  drinking 
purposes  must  be  free  from  disease  germs  and  from  im- 
purities of  every  kind,  so  that  it  will  not  be  dangerous  to 
health.  For  these  reasons  most  cities  today  supply  water 
to  their  residents,  or  else  supervise  carefully  any  private 
company  which  is  allowed  to  undertake  this  work. 

Planning  a  Water  System. — When  a  cit}'  is  about  to  in- 
stall a  system  of  waterworks,  it  tries  to  estimate  how  much 
water  is  used  daily,  and  how  much  will  probably  be  used 
in  the  future.  For  instance,  if  a  dyeing  establishment  is 
about  to  be  built,  this  will  use  many  gallons  of  water.  If 
a  great  factory  is  being  constructed,  and  several  hundred 
homes  for  workingmen  are  built  near  it,  probably  many 
persons  will  move  into  the  city,  and  these  will  require  a 
large  supply  of  water.  All  these  things  are  considered  when 
the  system  of  waterworks  is  planned. 

The  next  problem  is:  Where  can  this  water  be  obtained? 
Lakes,  rivers,  artesian  wells,  and  various  other  sources  are 
used  in  different  cities,  according  to  local  conditions.     It  is 

45 


46 


EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


sometimes  difficult  to  find  a  source  of  water  which  will 
yield  as  much  as  the  city  needs.  Quite  often  the  source  is 
many  miles  from  the  city.  In  this  case  it  is  likely  to  cost 
a  good  deal  of  money  to  lay  pipes  and  make  other  arrange- 
ments for  bringing  the  water  where  it  is  needed;  but  most 


This  large  dam  was  built  to  store  up  water  for  New  York  City.  Though 
it  forms  a  good-sized  lake,  the  water  held  here  is  only  a  part  of  the  city's 
total  water  supply. 


cities  feel  that  the  money  must  be  spent,  as  an  ample  sup- 
ply of  pure  water  is  necessary  to  public  welfare. 

Filtration  of  Water.— When  a  sufficient  flow  of  water  has 
been  secured,  the  question  arises  whether  it  will  need  any 
special  treatment  or  not.  In  many  cases  it  will  need  to  be 
filtered.     By  filtration  such  things  as  mud,  bits  of  sticks, 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY  47 

leaves,  and  other  impurities  are  removed,  as  well  as  many- 
harmful  bacteria.  We  see  the  effect  of  filtration  whenever 
a  housewife  is  making  jelly.  She  pours  into  the  jelly  bag 
a  muddy-looking  liquid  filled  with  pulp  and  seeds,  and  a 
beautiful  clear  juice  comes  out  of  the  bag,  while  all  the 
undesirable  substances  remain  inside.  We  see  the  same 
sort  of  filter  used  for  water,  when  a  salt  sack  is  tied  over  the 
nozzle  of  a  pump.  When  a  large  supply  of  water  is  to  be 
filtered,  however,  such  a  filter  is  not  advisable,  for  numerous 
reasons.  Large  filters  are  usually  made  of  fine  clean  sand, 
through  which  the  water  passes,  leaving  most  of  its  im- 
purities behind. 

Chemical  Treatment  of  Water. — Sometimes  dangerous 
bacteria  remain  even  after  the  water  has  been  filtered,  and 
it  is  then  necessary  to  destroy  them.  In  order  to  do  so, 
the  water  is  given  chemical  treatment;  that  is,  chemicals 
which  will  kill  the  bacteria  without  injuring  the  health  of 
human  beings  are  poured  into  the  water  before  it  is  turned 
into  the  pipes  that  lead  it  through  the  city.  It  is  rather 
difficult  to  treat  water  in  this  way  without  leaving  some 
slight  chemical  flavor.  However,  those  who  use  the  water 
regularly  soon  become  accustomed  to  this  and  cease  to 
notice  it.  Of  course,  it  is  far  better  to  have  such  water 
than  to  have  tasteless  water  filled  with  harmful  bacteria. 
It  is  better  still,  if  possible,  to  secure  water  which  does  not 
need  chemical  treatment. 

Hard  Water. — In  some  parts  of  the  country,  almost  all 
available  water  is  very  hard.  This  means  that  it  is  filled 
with  dissolved  minerals,  such  as  various  kinds  of  alkali  and 
other  mineral  substances.  ■  These  substances  were  in  the 
earth  through  which  the  water  passed,  and  the  water  has 
retained  a  sufficient  quantity  of  them  to  make  it  objec- 


48  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

tionable  for  many  uses.  Sometimes  it  is  so  hard  that  most 
soaps  cannot  make  a  good  lather,  and  this  makes  difficulty 
when  laundry  work  and  cleaning  are  done.  Sometimes  the 
minerals  are  injurious  to  health,  and  often  they  make  the 
skin  tough,  hard,  and  easily  cracked.  Occasionally,  they 
kill  plants  which  are  regularly  sprinkled  with  the  hard 
water. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  remove  these  minerals  from  the 
water,  so  far  as  possible.  This  can  be  done  in  various  ways, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  mineral.  It  is  ordinarily 
done  by  adding  to  the  water  some  chemical  which  will 
combine  with  the  dissolved  minerals  and  make  a  sub- 
stance that  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  leaving 
the  water  soft,  or  free  from  the  minerals.  The  trouble  and 
expense  of  doing  this  make  it  undesirable,  as  a  rule,  to  soften 
water  chemically,  unless  the  materials  which  it  contains  are 
very   objectionable. 

Expense  of  a  Water  Supply. — Even  when  water  requires 
no  treatment  before  it  can  be  used,  large  sums  of  money  are 
spent  by  the  city  in  pumping  stations,  reservoirs,  and  equip- 
ment. This  money  is  usually  borrowed  by  the  city,  which 
must  pay  interest  on  it.  The  city  must  also  lay  aside  some 
funds  each  year,  so  that  the  borrowed  money  can  be  repaid 
when  it  falls  due:  If  the  water  must  l)e  filtered  or  treated 
chemically,  the  city  will  have  the  additional  expense  of  con- 
structing filtration  plants  or  other  apparatus.  The  men 
who  work  at  the  city's  water  plant  must  be  paid.  For  these 
and  other  reasons,  the  city  finds  it  necessary  to  make  a 
charge  for  its  water.  Sometimes  meters  are  installed,  which 
show  just  how  much  water  is  drawn  out;  and  each  household 
pays  for  the  water  actually  used  by  it.  In  other  cases  a 
"flat  rate  "  is  charged,  of  so  many  dollars  a  year  for  each 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY  49 

faucet  in  a  building.  Whatever  method  it  may  use,  the 
city  must  charge  enough  to  meet  all  expenses. 

Preventing  the  Waste  of  Water. — Since  water  is  costly, 
it  ought  not  to  be  wasted;  yet  in  every  city  a  surprising 
quantity  of  water  is  allowed  to  run  away  daily,  without 
doing  the  slightest  good  to  anyone.  As  the  result  of  a  two- 
year  campaign  against  water  waste  in  Buffalo,  New  York, 
the  average  daily  waste  was  reduced  50,000,000  gallons;  but 
even  then  there  was  still  a  waste  of  200,000,000  gallons  per 
day.  It  is  very  common  to  see  in  public  buildings,  and  even 
in  private  homes,  leaking  faucets  which  allow  many  gallons 
of  water  to  trickle  into  waste  pipes.  Why  should  the  city 
go  to  the  expense  and  trouble  of  supplying  water,  if  it  is 
simply  to  be  wasted?  Why  should  customers  pay  for  water 
which  they  do  not  use?  It  is  better  for  everyone  concerned, 
when  water  is  used  carefully,  and  leaks  and  other  causes 
of  waste  are  prevented. 

Children,  as  well  as  grown  people,  can  do  much  toward 
lowering  water  bills  and  saving  the  city  needless  labor  and 
expense.  One  step  in  the  right  direction  is  to  develop  9 
habit  of  turning  off  all  faucets  carefully,  instead  of  allowing 
a  thin  stream  of  water  to  flow,  as  is  often  done.  Another 
step  is  to  inform  the  proper  person  at  once  when  a  leak  is 
noticed  anywhere.  If  a  water  main  bursts  in  the  street, 
the  superintendent  of  the  city  water  works  should  be  notified 
immediately.  By  such  means  as  these,  a  great  deal  of  water 
can  be  saved. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Where  does  your  city  obtain  its  water  supply? 

2.  What  processes,  if  any,  are  employed  in  order  to  make  the 
water  safe  for  general  use?  When  was  your  city  water  last  exam- 
ined by  the  state  board  of  health?    What  was  its  report? 


50  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

3.  Is  your  water  as  pure,  clear,  and  soft  as  can  be  obtained  in 
your  locality?  Is  there  a  plentiful  supply?  If  not,  what  meas- 
ures can  be  taken  to  increase  the  supply? 

4.  What  system  of  paying  for  water  is  used  in  your  city? 

5.  Obtain  the  latest  yearly  report  of  the  waterworks,  and  see 
whether  the  price  of  water  sold  to  consumers  pays  for  the  cost 
of  operation.    Is  there  a  profit  made?    If  so,  how  much? 

6.  From  the  report  of  the  waterworks,  learn  how  many  gallons 
of  water  were  pumped  or  otherwise  obtained  by  the  waterworks 
plant  during  the  year.  How  many  gallons  were  sold  to  customers 
and  supplied  to  the  city?  How  man)'  gallons  are  not  accounted 
for?    What  has  happened  to  those  gallons  of  water? 

7.  Are  there  any  defective  water  mains  in  your  city?  If  water 
is  lost  from  these,  what  difference  does  it  make  to  the  public? 


CHAPTER  IX 
DISPOSAL  OF  WASTE 

Why  Waste  Must  Be  Removed. — No  city  can  be  sanitary 
unless  its  garbage,  rubbish,  sewage,  and  other  waste  ma- 
terials are  disposed  of  in  a  proper  manner.  When  we  read 
about  the  cities  of  the  Middle  Ages,  we  learn  that  garbage 
was  simi3ly  thrown  into  the  streets  and  allowed  to  decay 
there,  while  every  kind  of  filth  was  abundant  in  the  gutters. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  plagues  swept  over  such  cities.  Today 
we  understand  that  it  is  essential  to  public  health  that  waste 
materials  shall  be  removed  from  a  city. 

There  are,  of  course,  other  reasons  why  this  removal  is 
necessary.  There  would  be  great  danger  of  fire  if  all  the 
newspapers,  wrapping  papers,  and  various  inflammable 
materials  discarded  every  day  were  allowed,  to  accumulate. 
It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  find  room  for  ashes  and 
other  bulky  substances  in  the  yards  of  ordinary  city  dwell- 
ings; and  they  would  be  a  great  inconvenience,  even  if 
there  were  enough  space  for  them. 

Why  the  City  Removes  Waste. — In  some  of  our  smaller 
cities  it  is  customary  for  each  household  to  make  individual 
arrangements  with  a  teamster  to  carry  away  waste  mate- 
rials. This  is  a  very  unsatisfactory  arrangement  in  any 
case,  and  particularly  in  the  case  of  a  closely  built  city. 
Garbage  ought  to  l)e  removed  daily,  especially  in  summer; 
many  other  kinds  of  trash  should  l)e  taken  awaj''  as  soon  as 
they  accumulate;  and  sewage  should  be  washed  into  sewer 
pipes  immediately.     Since  very  few  persons  can  afford  to 

51 


52  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

hire  men  to  carry  off  garbage  and  other  waste  daily,  or  to 
build  a  private  sewer  system,  many  cities  undertake  these 
enterprises.  This  is  another  example  of  the  way  in  which 
government  is  employed  by  the  people  to  do  the  work  in 
which  all  are  interested. 

Disposal  of  Waste. — When  a  city  collects  garbage,  ashes, 
and  trash,  what  does  it  do  with  them?  This  depends  on 
many  things,  such  as  the  size  of  the  city,  its  location,  the 
kind  of  land  on  which  it  is  located,  and  the  nature  of  the 
country  surrounding  it.  If  the  city  is  small,  all  the  ma- 
terials may  be  simply  dumped  at  some  distance  outside. 
It  often  happens  that  the  man  who  is  hired  by  the  city  to 
carry  away  the  trash  keeps  the  garbage  separated  from  the 
other  materials  and  feeds  it  to  hogs. 

Reduction  of  Garbage. — Very  large  cities  sometimes  sell' 
their  garbage  to  men  who  feed  it  to  hogs  or  else  "reduce 
it  ";  that  is,  separate  it  and  change  it  into  useful  materials. 
When  a  man  buys  several  tons  of  garbage  daily,  he  often 
heats  it  and  presses  out  all  the  liquid,  a  good  deal  of  which 
is  grease.  This  grease  is  saved  and  used  for  making  axle 
grease  or  some  other  useful  substance,  which  can  be  sold  at  a 
profit.  The  remainder  of  the  garbage  may  be  used  for 
making  fertilizer.  Some  cities  have  their  own  reduction 
plants,  so  that  the  income  from  the  reduced  garbage  can 
be  used  toward  paying  the  expenses  of  carting  it  away. 
The  city  of  Cleveland,  in  Ohio,  receives  a  large  sum  each 
year  from  the  sale  of  products  obtained  from  reduced 
garbage. 

Garbage,  Buried,  Emptied  into  Water,  or  Burned. — In 
cities  near  the  coast,  garbage  is  sometimes  loaded  on  flat 
boats,  towed  out  to  sea,  and  emptied  into  the  water,  so  far 
away  that  it  is  not  likely  to  float  back  to  the  shore.    Some 


DISPOSAL  OF  WASTE  53 

cities  have  garbage  buried,  and  others  use  it  to  fill  low  areas. 
If  these  areas  are  far  from  houses  and  on  the  extreme  out- 
skirts of  the  city,  and  if  the  garbage  is  well  covered  with 
earth,  there  is  not  much  objection  to  this  method  of  dis- 
posal, especially  since  the  garbage  will  enrich  the  soil.  Of 
course,  this  method  cannot  be  used  in  built-up  parts  of  the 
city. 

Some  cities  prefer  to  burn  their  garbage,  in  order  to  make 
sure  that  all  poisonous  decaying  substances  and  germs  of 
disease,  which  may  be  contained  in  it,  will  be  destroyed. 
It  is  usually  burned  together  with  dry  rubbish.  Experi- 
ments have  been  made,  with  the  idea  of  burning  garbage 
and  rubbish  as  fuel  for  running  machinery.  The  mixture 
is  usually  so  wet,  however,  that  it  burns  slowly  and  gives 
off  very  little  heat.  Some  attempts  have  been  made, 
especially  in  English  cities,  to  utilize  it  for  steam-power; 
but  these  attempts  have  not  been  highly  successful. 

Making  Land  from  the  Waste. — Street  sweepings,  ashes, 
and  other  trash  of  this  kind  are,  as  a  rule,  either  taken  away 
and  dumped  or  used  for  filling  low  or  swampy  places.  New 
York  City  has  been  using  its  ashes  in  this  way  for  a  long 
time  with  very  satisfactory  results.  It  is  said  to  have  added 
a  million  dollars'  worth  of  land  to  one  piece  of  municipal' 
property  in  ten  years. 

By-Products  from  Dead  Animals. — Dead  animals  are 
usually  sold  to  some  dealer,  who  tans  the  skin  for  leather, 
converts  the  bones  into  fertilizer  or  perhaps  buttons,  and 
employs  the  other  parts  for  various  useful  purposes. 

Sorting  and  Destroying  Rubbish. — Rubbish  is  a  difficult 
thing  to  dispose  of  properly,  as  it  contains  so  many  different 
materials.  Quite  often  it  is  simply  dumped  in  a  place 
where  it  will  be  out  of  the  way.     In  a  few  cities,  including 


54  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Buffalo,  Boston,  New  York,  and  Washington,  the  rubbish 
is  sorted  before  it  is  thrown  away  or  destroyed.  This  sort- 
ing separates  from  the  rubbish  everything  useful,  such  as 
rubber  in  all  forms,  tinfoil,  tin  cans  and  other  metal  objects, 
rags,  paper,  bottles,  and  many  other  things  that  can  be 
sold  and  used  in  various  ways.  The  city  sometimes  has  its 
own  employees  to  do  the  sorting.  In  this  case  the  money 
obtained  by  selling  the  useful  goods  helps  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses of  collecting  the  rubbish  and  disposing  of  it.  Some- 
times the  city  sells  to  private  citizens  or  firms  the  right 
to  sort  the  rubbish  and  take  whatever  they  wish.  In  either 
case  the  useless  remainder  is  discarded,  perhaps  being  carted 
off,  perhaps  being  burned. 

Burning  Rubbish. — Some  persons  claim  that  the  sorting 
of  rubbish  is  unsanitary  and  dangerous  to  public  health. 
For  this  reason  a  few  American  cities  burn  their  rubbish 
without  sorting  it.  As  in  the  case  of  garbage,  various  cities 
have  attempted  to  make  use  of  the  heat  obtained  by  burn- 
ing rubbish,  but  there  is  always  so  much  non-combustible 
material  in  it  that  it  is  a  very  poor  fuel,  seldom  giving  off 
enough  heat  to  be  of  much  value.  However,  some  cities 
have  found  that  by  installing  modern  devices  they  can  burn 
a  mixture  of  rubbish,  garbage,  and  ashes  and  obtain  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  heat. 

Sanitation  of  First  Importance. — When  a  city  is  deciding 
upon  the  best  way  for  disposing  of  its  garbage  and  rubbish, 
it  must  think  first  of  sanitation  and  public  health,  then  of 
convenience  and  expense.  If  it  can  find  a  sanitary,  con- 
venient, and  inexpensive  way  to  dispose  of  its  waste  mate- 
rials, it  is  fortunate.  If  it  cannot  do  so,  it  must  at  least  use 
a  sanitary  method,  even  though  this  may  be  somewhat  ex- 
pensive, for  public  health  must  be  preserved. 


DISPOSAL  OF  WASTE  55 

The  Sewage  System. — Important  as  it  is  for  cities  to 
dispose  of  garbage  and  rubbish  properly,  it  is  even  more 
important  that  they  adopt  correct  measures  for  dis- 
posing of  sewage,  as  sewage  has  been  found  to  be  a  great 
menace  to  pubKc  health.  Many  epidemics  of  typhoid 
have  been  caused  by  unsanitary  methods  of  sewage  dis- 
posal. For  this  reason  even  very  small  cities  usually  install 
systems  of  sewers,  and  all  larger  ones  do  so. 

Sewage  is  washed  into  waste  pipes  connected  with  the 
various  buildings  of  a  city;  then  into  larger  pipes  or  main 
pipes,  commonly  called  mains.  These  mains  empty  into 
a  very  large  pipe  called  a  trunk,  which  leads  out  to  the  place 
where  the  sewage  is  finally  disposed  of. 

Sewage  Emptied  into  River  or  Sea. — The  problem  of 
disposing  of  sewage  in  a  satisfactory  way  is  sometimes 
difficult.  If  a  city  is  located  near  a  river,  and  the  river  is 
not  used  to  supply  drinking  water,  either  to  the  city  itself 
or  other  communities  farther  down  the  river,  then  the  trunk 
pipe  may  empty  the  sewage  into  the  stream,  and  it  will  be 
washed  away.  As  the  United  States  is  being  settled  more 
thickly,  and  cities  and  towns  are  growing  up  close  together, 
it  is  very  seldom  that  this  method  of  sewage  disposal  can 
be  used  safely.  Much  the  same  thing  is  true  of  emptying 
sewage  into  the  sea,  which  used  to  be  the  custom  of  towns 
located  on  the  coast.  Of  course  sea  water  is  not  used  for 
drinking  purposes;  but  the  oysters,  clams,  and  other  shell- 
fish found  near  the  shore  are  used  for  food.  It  has  been  dis- 
covered that  unless  the  sewage  is  emptied  at  a  long  distance 
from  the  shore,  it  will  pollute  these  shellfish  and  make  them 
carriers  of  disease  germs.  Sewage  floating  near  the  shore 
is  also  a  great  nuisance  to  bathers. 

If  a  city  cannot  find  a  suitable  place  in  which  to  empty 


56  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

sewage,  just  as  it  comes  from  the  pipes,  it  must  face  the 
problem  of  adopting  some  other  method  of  disposal.  In 
European  countries  sewage  is  often  sprinkled  over  farm 
land  as  fertihzer,  but  this  practice  has  not  gained  favor  in 
the  United  States,  though  a  few  cities  have  made  experi- 
ments in  this  direction. 

Other  Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal.— A  much  more 
common  custom  here  is  to  pass  the  sewage  through  screens, 
which  catch  the  solid  part  and  let  the  hquid  part  flow  past. 
The  solid  part  is  gathered  from  time  to  time  and  buried, 
burned,  or  otherwise  disposed  of.  The  liquid  part  may  be 
filtered  in  order  to  purify  it,  or  it  may  be  treated  with 
chemicals  which  will  kill  germs  of  disease.  If  a  very  large 
body  of  water  is  available,  the  liquid  sewage  is  sometimes 
allowed  to  flow  into  this  water,  just  as  it  comes  past  the 
screen.  This  is  a  safe  method  if  there  is  enough  water  in 
the  stream  or  lake  to  dilute  the  sewage  until  there  are  only 
a  few  germs  to  each  gallon  of  water;  but  even  so,  this  method 
should  not  be  used  if  drinking  water  is  drawn  within  some 
miles  of  the  sewer  outlet.  If  that  is  the  case,  the  liquid 
sewage  must  be  purified  by  filters  or  chemicals. 

Sanitary  engineers  and  chemists  are  continually  working 
out  new  and  improved  methods  of  treating  sewage.  Some 
of  these  methods  employ  beneficial  bacteria  which  break 
up  the  solid  parts  of  the  sewage,  and  some  are  based  upon 
the  action  of  chemicals.  Various  methods,  too  complicated 
to  be  described  here,  are  being  tried  in  various  cities,  with 
encouraging  results.  Probably  it  will  not  be  long  before 
every  city  will  be  able  to  treat  its  sewage  in  a  modern  and 
improved  manner  which  will  make  it  pure  and  safe. 

Disposal  of  Rainwater.— Some  cities  allow  rainwater  to 
flow  into  their  sewer  mains,  while  others  build  separate 


DISPOSAL  OF  WASTE 


57 


systems  of  storm  sewers  to  carry  off  rain  and  melted  snow. 
If  the  sewer  mains  are  not  very  large,  and  the  city  is  located 
in  a  region  where  showers  are  heavy  and  swift,  the  separate 
system  is  preferable.  This  method  is  desirable,  also,  when 
the  sewage  is  treated  with  expensive  chemicals.  In  this  case 
it  may  be  cheaper,  in  the  long  run,  to  build  separate  storm 


One  method  of  purifying  sewage.  At  Columbus,  Ohio,  liquid  sewage  is 
forced  through  the  "trickling  filter  "  shown  here,  and  the  sun  and  air  help 
in  the  work  of  purifying  it. 

sewers,  rather  than  to  buy  all  the  chemicals  month  after 
month,  and  year  after  year,  that  will  be  needed  to  purify 
millions  of  extra  gallons  of  diluted  sewage.  This  question 
of  separate  pipes  for  rainwater  is  one  that  each  city  must 
decide  for  itself,  according  to  local  conditions. 


FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Has  your  city  a  sanitary  system  of  garbage  disposal?  If  so, 
describe  it.  If  not,  tell  what  methods  are  employed  by  private 
families.    Are  these  methods  sanitary? 

2.  Are  garbage,  stable  waste,  and  other  decaying  substances 


58  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

allowed  to  lie  where  they  can  serve  as  breeding  places  for  flies? 
If  so,  what  measures  should  be  taken? 

3.  Is  rubbish  collected  by  your  city?    If  so,  how  often? 

4.  Do  tin  cans  lie  where  they  can  collect  rainwater  and  serve  as 
breeding  places  for  mosquitoes?  Mosquitoes  carry  yellow  fever 
and  malaria.  Is  there  any  yellow  fever  or  malaria  in  your  city? 
What  other  breeding  places,  besides  tin  cans,  may  mosquitoes 
find  there?    What  can  be  done  about  these  conditions? 

5.  If  your  city  collects  rubbish,  is  its  final  disposal  sanitary 
and  generally  satisfactory^? 

6.  Has  your  city  a  modern  sanitary  sewer  system?  Is  con- 
nection with  this  system  required  of  every  property  owner?  If 
not,  what  means  are  taken  to  insure  sanitary  premises  everywhere? 

7.  What  are  the  ordinary  conditions  of  rainfall  in  your  part  of 
the  country?  Is  the  drainage  system  of  your  city  sufficient  to 
carry  rainwater  off  rapidly,  or  are  there  parts  of  the  city  where  water 
may  stand  for  some  time?  What  improvements  might  be  made 
in  the  drainage  system? 


CHAPTER  X 
EDUCATION;  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

Why  We  Believe  in  Universal  Education. — One  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  city's  business  is  providing 
education.  Not  only  the  city,  but  the  larger  divisions  of 
government,  such  as  county,  state,  and  nation,  take  a  direct 
or  indirect  part  in  this  great  work.  It  is  the  ambition  of 
all  true  Americans  to  see  that  every  boy  and  girl,  mail  and 
woman,  in  the  entire  country,  has  at  least  an  elementary 
education. 

Why  is  this  true?  It  is  because  we  believe  in  self-govern- 
ment, and  we  know  that  onlj^  educated  people  can  really 
govern  themselves.  If  people  are  ignorant  and  unable  to 
learn  the  truth  about  public  questions,  they  will  believe 
anything  they  are  told,  and  will  vote  just  as  they  are  per- 
suaded to  do  by  others.  In  this  way  they  may  be  deceived 
and  led  to  vote  for  men  who  will  not  govern  them  properly. 
The  only  way  to  be  sure  that  people  will  not  be  led  astray 
by  falsehoods  is  to  educate  them,  so  that  they  can  study 
public  questions  for  themselves. 

There  are  many  other  reasons  why  we  believe  in  universal 
education.  Educated  persons  are  better  able  to  support 
themselves  than  uneducated  ones.  Much  of  the  money 
spent  in  providing  public  schools  will  be  saved  later,  because 
few  educated  persons  will  need  to  be  supported  by  charity. 
Education  also  lessens  crime.  When  a  man  can  make  a 
good  living,  he  is  less  likely  to  enter  a  life  of  crime  than  if, 
through  ignorance,  he  does  not  know  how  to  supply  his 

59 


60  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

needs  by  hontst  work.  Thus  we  see  that  money  spent  on 
education  means  money  saved  on  prisons  and  similar 
institutions. 

The  Course  of  Study. — In  various  cities  the  pubhc  school 
courses  of  study  differ  a  good  deal,  owing  partly  to  state 
laws,  and  partly  to  the  particular  needs  of  the  individual 
cities.  Nearly  everywhere,  however,  the  following  subjects 
are  studied: 
Reading  and  writing,  so  that  each  person  can  express  his  own 

thoughts  to  others,  and  learn  their  thoughts. 
Arithmetic,  so  that  the  student  may  learn  to  manage  his  own 

business  affairs. 
Geography,  so  that  he  will  know  about  the  other  people  and 

nations  of  the  world,  the  splendors  ot  natural  scenery, 

the  various  products  of  the  earth  and  the  way  in  which 

they  are  distributed,  and  manj^  other  things. 
History   and  government,  so   that   he  will   understand   the 

lessons  which  can  be  learned  from  the  past,  the  meaning 

of  our  own  national  ideals,  and  the  duties  of  a  citizen. 
Hyg  'ene  and  sanitation,  so  that  each  one  will  know  how  to 

keep  himself  in  good  health  and  how  to  secure  healthful 

surroundings. 
Physical  education  and  manual  training,  so  that  the  student 

ma}'  learn  to  control  his  body  and  make  it  carry  out 

the  ideas  of  his  mind. 
Nature  study  and  science,  in  order  to  teach  him  to  enjoy  the 

wonders  of  nature  and  to  understand  its  laws. 
Literature,  art,  and  music,  so  that  each  person  will  be  able 

to  enjoy  beautiful  things. 
Compulsory  Education. — If  every  child  in  the   United 
States  were  taught  these  subjects  in  the  school  course  of 
study,  we  should  soon  build  up  a  nation  of  happy,  useful, 


EDUCATION;  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  61 

intelligent  citizens.  In  our  larger  cities  the  greatest  pains 
are  taken  to  see  that  all  children  of  school  age  are  receiving 
an  education.  Truant  officers  are  appointed  tc  enforce  the 
laws  compelling  parents  to  send  children  to  school.  It 
used  to  be  considered  the  privilege  of  fathers  and  mothers 
to  keep  their  children  out  of  school  if  they  desired  to  do  so, 
but  public  opinion  has  changed  on  this  point.  Now  it  is 
believed  that  no  parents  have  the  right  to  let  their  children 
grow  up  in  ignorance.  The  idea  of  compulsory  education 
is  spreading  rapidly,  and  probably  it  will  not  be  many  years 
before  every  child  in  the  country  is  a  regular  attendant  at 
school. 

The  High  Schools. — The  subjects  which  we  have  just 
discussed  are,  of  course,  those  taught  in  the  grade  schools 
or  elementary  schools.  Most  cities  provide  high  schools 
for  all  students  who  wish  to  take  up  more  advanced  work. 
The  courses  given  in  high  schools  differ  even  more  than 
those  given  in  elementary  schools.  Small  cities  may  be 
able  to  offer  only  a  few  courses,  while  larger  ones  can  permit 
the  students  to  choose  among  a  great  many.  Ordinarily, 
the  high  school  offers  work  in  one  or  more  foreign  languages 
as  well  as  in  English  literature  and  composition,  mathe- 
matics, history,  and  science.  Some  high  schools  offer  man- 
ual training  and  domestic  science,  some  offer  Iwokkeeping 
and  stenography,  and  a  few  offer  training  for  trades  and 
occupations.  Each  city  decides  upon  these  courses  accord- 
ing to  its  wealth,  its  principal  industries,  the  needs  of  its 
students,  and  other  considerations. 

School  Buildings. — Most  of  our  American  cities  take  a 
great  interest  in  their  school  buildings,  which  aiC  usually 
very  good.  It  is  becoming  customary  to  place  new  school- 
houses  in  beautiful  surroundings,  if  possible,  and  to  decorate 


62  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

them  artistically,  so  that  the  students  may  feel  pleasure  and 
pride  in  their  schools.  Our  cities  are  growing  so  rapidly 
that  the  schools  are  often  overcrowded,  and  undesirable 
old  buildings  must  sometimes  be  used  for  lack  of  room; 
but  most  cities  are  trying  to  overcome  thjs  condition,  and 
to  send  every  child  to  a  roomy,  sanitary,  artistic  school 
building. 

The  School  Board. — The  schools  are  managed  by  a  com- 
mittee known  as  a  school  board  or  a  board  of  education. 
This  board  selects  superintendents,  teachers,  and  other 
school  officials,  decides  upon  their  salaries,  makes  general 
rules  in  reference  to  matters  of  discipline  and  various  school 
problems,  and  performs  other  duties,  according  to  the  pow- 
ers given  to  local  school  boards  by  state  law. 

State  Control  of  the  Schools. — We  have  spoken  of  the 
city's  schools,  but  we  must  not  forget  that  all  schools  are 
partly  under  the  control  of  the  state,  which  may  prescribe 
certain  subjects  of  instruction,  a  certain  length  of  term, 
and  other  requirements.  The  state  not  only  supervises 
local  schools,  but  assists  them  financially,  as  a  rule;  for, 
as  we  have  seen,  all  l)ranches  of  government  are  interested 
in  securing  universal  education. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Give  all  the  reasons  that  you  can  for  the  statement  that 
education  is  necessary  to  the  best  type  of  citizenship. 

2.  What  subjects  are  studied  in  the  primary  schools  and  the 
grammar  schools  of  your  own  city  or  town?  Wliat  is  the  use  of 
each  subject? 

3.  Is  school  attendance  required  by  a  law  of  your  state  or  by 
an  ordinance  of  your  city,  or  by  both?  How  is  this  law  or  ordinance 
enforced? 


EDUCATION;  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  63 

4.  Give  reasons  why  compulsory  education  is  becoming  quite 
general. 

5.  Find  out  what  courses  are  offered  in  the  high  schools  of  your 
city.  Are  any  of  these  courses  selected  particularly  to  meet  some 
need  of  the  locality? 

6.  How  many  school  buildings  does  your  city  possess?  Are 
these  all  in  good  condition?     Have  they  pleasant  surroundings? 

7.  Describe  any  especially  interesting  features  of  your  public 
school  system. 

8.  Write  a  few  paragraphs  on  the  value  of  education  in  a  de- 
mocracy. 


CHAPTER   XI 
SPECIAL   EDUCATIONAL   AGENCIES 

Normal  Schools,  Vocational  Schools,  and  Colleges. — In 

many  cities  we  find  not  only  the  regular  public  schools,  but 
various  special  schools.  Some  large  cities,  such  as  New 
York,  Toledo,  and  Omaha,  have  municipal  colleges  or  uni- 
versities; and  a  number  of  cities  have  normal  schools  for 
the  training  of  teachers.  Cincinnati,  Philadelphia,  and 
many  other  cities  have  special  vocational  high  schools,  where 
a  student  may  learn  a  trade  at  the  same  time  that  he  is 
securing  a  good  secondary  education. 

Special  Classes  for  Individual  Instruction. — Most  of 
our  larger  cities  have  special  classes  for  backward  pupils. 
These  classes  are  very  small,  so  that  each  pupil  can  have 
individual  attention  from  the  teacher.  Sometimes  a  few 
months  of  special  attention  will  help  a  backward  child  to 
understand  the  school  work  so  well  that  he  can  return  to 
the  regular  classes.  Even  where  this  is  not  the  case,  it  has 
been  found  that  such  children  do  better  work  and  are  much 
happier  in  special  classes  than  in  regular  ones. 

Schools  or  classes  for  the  blind,  the  deaf,  and  other  handi- 
capped children  are  found  in  a  few  cities,  though  usually 
these  persons  are  cared  for  by  the  state. 

Night  Schools. — Many  cities  have  special  night  schools 
for  adults  and  for  young  people  who  have  been  compelled 
to  leave  the  regular  public  schools  in  order  to  go  to  work. 
A  large  number  of  subjects  are  taught  in  these  schools. 
They  offer  the  ordinary  graded  courses  for  the  benefit  of 

64 


SPECIAL  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES 


65 


those  whose  early  education  was  neglected.  In  addition, 
they  usually  offer  bookkeeping,  typewriting,  stenography, 
and  other  business  subjects;  and  sometimes  they  give  com- 
plete high  school  courses.     There  are  also  a  few  night 


A  class  of  sr-hool  children  liaviiig  a  lesson  in  a  Xatural  History  Museum. 
Nature  study  is  easy  and  interesting  when  it  can  be  studied  in  this  way. 

schools  which  offer  college  courses,  law,  and  other  advanced 
work. 

Americanizing  the  Foreign-bom. — Even  before  the  great 
World  War,  some  of  our  cities  were  conducting  special 
classes  for  foreign-born  citizens.  The  war  has  shown  us  how 
necessary  it  is  to  make  sure  that  every  immigrant  who 
settles  in  the  United  States  shall  become  a  loyal  citizen. 
One  of  the  first  steps  toward  this  is  to  teach  everyone  to 
speak,  read,  and  write  the  English  language.     This  will 


66  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

make  him  feel  that  he  is  a  member  of  our  nation,  and  will 
also  make  it  easy  for  him  to  learn  why  the  United  States  is 
worthy  of  his  loyalty.  For  this  reason  many  cities,  even 
quite  small  ones,  are  now  conducting  Americanization 
classes  for  the  benefit  of  the  foreign-born. 

Libraries  and  Museums. — Schools  and  classes  are  not 
the  only  means  by  which  the  modern  city  educates  its 
citizens.  Nearly  all  cities,  except  the  very  smallest,  have 
public  libraries,  where  anyone  can  go  to  secure  information 
on  many  topics,  as  well  as  books  to  read  for  pleasure.  Many 
cities  have  museums  and  collections  of  various  sorts,  such 
as  natural  history  museums,  historical  collections,  and  other 
valuable  material.  Frequently  the  city  maintains  a  zoologi- 
cal garden  or  park,  in  order  to  enable  everyone  to  study 
the  appearance  and  habits  of  many  animals. 

Free  Lectures  and  Concerts;  Exhibits. — Some  cities 
give  free  lectures  on  current  topics,  art,  literature,  and  other 
important  subjects.  The  city  often  provides  free  music,  in 
the  form  of  band  concerts  and  other  performances.  One 
who  wishes  to  obtain  a  musical  education  can  benefit  greatly 
by  attending  these  concerts,  as  the  best  classical  music  is 
usually  selected  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  program. 

Another  great  educational  work  done  by  modern  cities 
takes  the  form  of  special  exhibits.  Posters,  pictures,  models, 
and  instructive  objects  in  regard  to  a  topic  such  as  Child 
Welfare  or  How  to  Prevent  Tuberculosis  are  arranged  in 
a  public  place,  and  citizens  are  urged  to  inspect  them.  One 
hour  spent  at  such  an  exhibit  will  usually  teach  a  person 
more  than  he  could  ordinarily  learn  in  ten  hours  from 
books. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  modern  city  is  doing  all  in  its  power 
to  educate  every  citizen. 


SPECIAL  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES  67 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

L  Try  to  learn  something  from  books  and  magazines  concerning 
municipal  colleges,  universities,  and  normal  schools. 

2.  Get  information  also  in  respect,  to  the  special  "shopwork  " 
high  school  courses  and  other  vocational  courses  offered  in  Cin- 
cinnati and  elsewhere. 

3.  What  special  schools  or  special  classes  for  backward  or  trouble- 
some children  does  your  city  have?  Find  out  all  that  you  can  about 
these,  and  report  to  the  class. 

4.  Does  your  city  hold  any  free  night  schools,  Americanization 
classes,  and  similar  schools  for  the  benefit  of  adults?  Why  should 
a  city  try  to  educate  adults? 

5.  Is  there  a  public  library  in  your  city?  How  is  it  managed? 
Is  it  used  b}^  many  persons?    Do  you  use  it? 

6.  Are  there  museums  or  collections  of  anj^  kind?  Do  you  visit 
them? 

7.  Does  your  city  provide  lecture  courses  and  musical  programs? 
Do  you  attend  any  of  these? 

8.  What  educational  exhibits  have  been  held  in  your  city  recently? 
What  did  you  learn  from  these? 


CHAPTER   XII 
RECREATION   AND    WELFARE 

Why   Recreation   Grounds   Are   Important.— It  is   now 

understood  that  by  supplying  opportunities  for  recreation, 
a  city  can  do  a  great  deal  to  prevent  crime.  Boys  especially 
need  the  excitement  and  activity  that  they  find  in  sports 
and  athletic  exercise,  and  if  such  opportunities  are  provided, 
they  are  less  likely  to  be  tempted  to  gamble  and  steal.  For 
this  reason,  and  also  because  the  public  health  is  improved 
when  many  persons  take  outdoor  exercise,  most  of  our  cities 
are  providing  places  of  recreation. 

Opportunities  for  Sport  and  Amusement.— Even  the 
small  cities  usually  have  parks,  where  it  is  pleasant  to  walk 
or  to  sit  and  enjoy  the  fresh  air.  The  parks  of  our  larger 
cities  are  often  quite  wonderful.  They  sometimes  cover 
several  square  miles,  and  are  planted  with  rare  bushes  and 
trees  and  with  beds  of  beautiful  flowers.  Frequently  they 
contain  tennis  courts,  golf  links,  baseball  and  football  fields, 
and  similar  spaces  for  play.  Thoughtful  people  believe  that 
it  is  not  wise  to  spend  too  much  money  on  these  large  parks, 
however,  as  many  small  parks  scattered  through  the  city 
will  be  easier  for  children  to  reach  than  one  large  one  on  the 
outskirts. 

Cities  located  near  large  bodies  of  water  usually  provide 
bathing  beaches,  bath  houses,  and  recreation  piers.  Inland 
cities  often  build  public  baths  and  swimming  pools.  PubUc 
dance  halls,  roller  skating  rinks,  and  ice  skating  rinks  and 
ponds  are  all  found  in  many  cities.    Music,  moving  pictures, 

68 


RECREATION  AND  WELFARE  69 

lectures,  and  various  entertainments  provided  by  the  city 
are  not  only  educational,  but  are  a  much  appreciated  form 
of  recreation. 

Community  Centers. — It  is  becoming  customary  to  use 
school  buildings  or  other  public  buildings  as  community 
social  centers.  A  community  center  is  a  place  where  social 
events  of  interest  to  a  whole  neighborhood  may  take 
place.  Clubs  of  various  kinds  meet  here,  entertainments 
are  given,  meetings  are  held  to  discuss  interesting  questions, 
and  other  things  are  done  which  draw  the  people  of  a  neigh- 
borhood closer  together  and  make  them  more  friendly 
and  more  willing  to  cooperate  in  helpful  undertakings. 

Public  Playgrounds. — School  grounds  and  other  places 
are  often  used  as  public  playgrounds.  Usually  they  contain 
sand  piles,  sliding  boards,  see-saws,  swings,  horizontal  bars, 
and  other  helps  toward  interesting  play.  Wherever  possible, 
a  supervisor  is  placed  in  charge  of  a  playground,  so  that  he 
may  prevent  trouble  among  the  children,  may  see  that  large 
and  selfish  children  do  not  monopolize  all  the  apparatus, 
and  may  teach  new  games.  These  playgrounds  are  growing 
in  popularity,  as  busy  mothers  are  often  very  glad  to  be 
able  to  send  their  little  children  to  a  safe  place  where  they 
can  enjoy  themselves. 

Control  of  Objectionable  Amusements. — We  have  seen 
that  places  for  recreation  are  a  help  in  preventing  crime; 
but  there  are  other  measures  taken  by  nearly  all  cities  to 
lessen  temptation.  Strict  rules  are  made  that  all  theaters, 
moving-picture  houses,  and  other  places  of  entertainment 
shall  not  display  objectionable  scenes.  Though  these  ordi- 
nances are  not  always  enforced  as  strictly  as  might  be  de- 
sired, they  do  a  great  deal  toward  preventing  representa- 
tions of  vicious  and  criminal  conduct,  which  would  set  a 


70  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

bad  example.  Gambling  and  other  objectionable  practices 
are  forbidden  in  almost  every  city. 

Measures  to  Secure  Comfort  and  Happiness. — There 
are  many  other  things  done  l)y  modern  cities,  not  only  to 
lessen  crime,  but  to  make  the  city  a  good  place  in  which  to 
live. 

Some  cities  provide  employment  bureaus,  which  try  to 
find  positions  for  all  men  or  women  who  wish  work.  Some 
provide  low  rates  on  trolleys  and  other  conveyances  for  the 
benefit  of  factory  workers,  school  children,  and  others. 
Some  provide  public  laundries,  where  for  a  few  cents,  or 
perhaps  for  nothing,  women  may  have  the  use  of  tubs 
and  plenty  of  hot  water,  so  that  they  can  wash  their  clothes 
properly.  Many  cities  provide  municipal  markets,  where 
farmers  may  bring  their  fresh  vegetables  and  other  products, 
and  sell  them  directly  to  those  who  wish  to  use  them.  Free 
day  nurseries,  where  little  children  are  cared  for  properly 
instead  of  being  neglected  while  their  mothers  are  at  work, 
are  quite  common  in  large  municipalities. 

As  time  passes,  people  are  insisting  upon  more  and  more 
service  from  their  city  governments.  They  realize  that  the 
best  way  in  which  to  secure  good  living  conditions  and  a 
happy  life  for  everyone  is  through  public  cooperation; 
that  is,  through  government.  No  one  man  can  make  a 
city  sanitary,  moral,  and  pleasant;  but  all  the  citizens 
together,  by  putting  good  and  able  men  into  public  offices, 
can  make  their  city  whatever  they  desire  it  to  be. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  many  parks  has  your  city?  Are  these  parks  well  supplied 
with  seats?  Are  they  planted  with  grass,  trees,  and  flowers? 
Are  they  kept  in  good  condition? 


RECREATION  AND  WELFARE  71 

2.  What  opportunities  for  play  and  recreation  do  the  parks 
supply?    Do  many  people  use  these  opportunities  for  play? 

3.  Are  the  parks  located  so  that  children  in  all  parts  of  the  city 
can  reach  them?  Are  there  any  playgrounds  especially  for  chil- 
dren, either  in  parks  or  elsewhere? 

4.  What  other  opportunities  for  recreation  does  your  city  pro- 
vide? Has  it  a  swimming  pool,  a  lake,  or  some  other  body  of 
water  which  the  public  can  enjoy? 

5.  Are  social  gatherings  or  other  meetings  held  in  your  school- 
houses  outside  of  school  hours?  How  are  your  school  buildings 
used  to  help  the  entire  community? 

6.  Are  the  laws  against  gambling  stricth^  enforced  in  your  city? 

7.  What  city  ordinances  have  been  passed  for  the  protection 
of  morals  and  the  benefit  of  the  community? 

8.  Learn  of  all  the  different  things  that  your  city  is  doing  for 
moral  and  social  welfare.  What  additional  enterprises  do  you 
think  it  might  undertake? 


CHAPTER    XIII 
CITY  ORGANIZATION;  THE  MAYOR-COUNCIL  PLAN 

Organization  of  City  Governments. — We  have  seen,  in 
the  early  chapters  of  this  book,  that  people  must  form  an 
organization  and  select  necessary  officers,  when  they  in- 
tend to  work  together.  Since  the  modern  city  does  all  the 
various  kinds  of  work  that  we  have  studied  and  man}^  others, 
it  must  be  organized — that  is,  planned  and  arranged  very 
carefully — and  must  have  a  large  number  of  officers.  We 
cannot  study  all  the  details  of  the  way  in  which  city  govern- 
ments are  organized,  nor  can  we  learn  about  the  work  of 
every  person  employed  by  them,  as  many  large  books  would 
be  needed  to  describe  these  things  fully.  However,  we  shall 
look  briefly  at  the  principal  plans  for  organizing  city  govern- 
ments, and  learn  the  chief  officials  required  under  each 
plan. 

Laws  Governing  the  City. — Just  as  our  athletic  associa- 
tion or  literary  society  must  have  a  constitution,  telling  the 
objects  of  the  society  and  arranging  for  officers,  a  city  must 
have  written  laws,  telling  what  work  it  may  undertake, 
naming  the  chief  officers  it  may  select,  and  explaining  other 
important  points.  These  laws  are  sometimes  made  es- 
pecially for  a  particular  city,  in  which  case  they  are  known 
as  a  charter;  and  sometimes  they  are  made  by  state  legis- 
latures, to  govern  all  cities  in  the  state  except  those  which 
have  charters.  Whether  a  city  is  governed  by  a  charter  of 
its  own  or  by  general  state  laws,  it  is  usually  organized 

72 


CITY  ORGANIZATION  73 

according  to  one  of  three  plans:  the  mayor-council  plan, 
the  commission  plan,  or  the  commission-manager  plan.  We 
shall  examine  each  of  these  plans  in  turn. 

The  Mayor-Council  Plan. — For  a  long  time  nearly  all 
cities  in  the  United  States  were  organized  according  to  the 
mayor-council  plan.  This  plan  varies  in  different  cities, 
but  usually  has  the  following  characteristics.  The  city  is 
divided  into  small  districts  known  as  wards,  and  the  people 
in  each  ward  elect  a  member  of  a  committee  known  as  the 
city  council.  A  mayor  is  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  whole 
city.  The  council  makes  special  rules  and  regulations  for 
the  city,  known  as  ordinances.  The  mayor  sees  that  these 
ordinances  are  enforced,  and  also  that  the  city's  work  is 
carried  on  according  to  its  charter,  or  according  to  state 
laws,  if  the  city  has  no  charter. 

The  City  Council  and  Other  Officers. — The  council  often 
does  more  than  make  ordinances.  Frequently  its  members 
are  divided  into  committees,  which  supervise  certain  parts 
of  the  city's  business.  Thus,  there  may  be  a  committee  on 
health,  a  committee  on  streets,  a  committee  on  street  light- 
ing, and  so  on.  Each  committee  is  expected  to  see  that  its 
own  particular  part  of  the  city's  work  is  done  as  well  as 
possible. 

In  addition  to  the  mayor  and  councilmen,  the  city  has 
many  other  officers,  some  of  whom  are  elected,  and  some 
appointed.  Among  the  elected  officers  we  find,  as  a  rule,  the 
city  treasurer,  the  auditor  (whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  all 
accounts  are  correct  and  all  expenditures  are  made  accord- 
ing to  law),  the  coroner,  and  various  others. 

Difficulty  of  Seciu*ing  Experienced  Officials. — During 
recent  years  there  has  been  considerable  dissatisfaction 
with  this  form  of  city  government.    People  have  begun  to 


74  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

believe  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  councilmen  to 
attend  properly  to  the  city's  business,  for  several  reasons. 
One  reason  is  that  they  nearly  always  have  private  business, 
which  demands  a  good  deal  of  their  time.  Another  reason  is 
that  they  are  seldom  trained  in  the  kind  of  work  which  they 
try  to  do  for  the  city.  Thus,  the  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  health  and  sanitation  may  be  a  prosperous  grocer,  who 
hardly  knows  what  public  sanitation  means  and  has  no 
time  to  learn,  because  his  own  affairs  keep  him  busy. 

Much  the  same  thing  is  true  in  regard  to  the  mayor.  A 
mayor  is  usually  elected  for  a  short  term  of  two,  three,  or 
four  years.  He  cannot  afford  to  neglect  his  own  business 
too  much,  as  he  will  need  to  earn  his  living  when  his  term 
expires.  As  a  result,  he  has  so  little  time  to  devote  to  the 
city's  work  that  it  is  not  carried  on  as  efficiently  as  it  should 
be.  Naturally,  he  learns  by  experience,  and  he  has  perhaps 
become  an  expert  by  the  time  his  term  ends.  This  knowl- 
edge does  not  help  the  city  very  much,  however,  for  a  new 
mayor  is  likely  to  be  chosen  for  the  next  term,  and  the  city 
is  again  governed  by  an  inexperienced  man. 

It  might  be  much  better  if  the  same  mayor  and  the  same 
council  were  chosen  year  after  year,  provided  they  were  all 
honest  and  capable  men  who  would  serve  the  city  as  well  as 
they  could.  But  this  is  not  likely  to  happen  in  many  cases, 
as  all  political  parties  want  to  take  their  turn  at  governing 
the  city,  and  the  parties  which  are  out  of  power  work  hard 
to  put  their  men  in.  It  seems  probable  that,  for  many 
years  to  come,  cities  organized  by  the  mayor-council  plan 
will  have  inexperienced  officials. 

Division  of  Responsibility. — Another  objection  often 
made  to  this  plan  is  that,  when  the  city's  affairs  are  mis- 
managed, nobody  knows  whom  to  blame.     Let  us  suppose 


CITY  ORGANIZATION  75 

that  the  streets  are  badly  Hghted,  and  that  a  committee 
of  citizens  is  formed,  to  interview  the  mayor  on  the  subject. 

"I  am  sorry,"  he  says,  "but  I  have  no  power  to  help. 
My  duties  are  to  see  that  the  laws  are  enforced;  but  I  have 
nothing  to  do  with  street  lighting.  Mr.  Jones,  the  council- 
man from  the  third  ward,  is  the  chairman  of  the  committee 
on  street  lighting.     I  advise  you  to  see  him." 

The  citizens  go  to  Mr.  Jones,  and  he  says,  "Yes,  I  know 
the  streets  are  badly  lighted,  but  I  can't  help  it.  There  are 
three  of  us  on  the  committee,  and  the  other  two  will  not 
cooperate  with  me  in  trying  to  improve  the  service.  You'd 
better  see  IMr.  Smith  and  Mr.  Brown." 

Mr.  Smith  and  Mr.  Brown  are  interviewed  by  the  citi- 
zens' committee,  and  both  tell  this  sort  of  story:  "We  stand 
for  progressive  ideas,  and  if  we  could  have  things  our  way, 
you  would  see  the  city  splendidly  lighted.  But  Mr.  Jones 
opposes  everything  we  want;  and  as  he  is  the  chairman  of 
the  committee,  he  has  more  influence  than  we  have,  so  we 
don't  accomplish  anything." 

By  this  time  the  citizens  feel  thoroughly  puzzled  and  do 
not  know  where  to  lay  the  blame  for  poor  service,  or  what 
measures  to  take  to  improve  the  service;  for  the  responsi- 
bility seems  to  be  divided  among  many  persons.  This 
division  of  responsibility  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  chief 
faults  of  the  mayor-council  plan  of  city  government. 

Of  course  there  are  many  instances  in  which  this  form  of 
government  has  been  very  successful.  Occasionally  a  city 
recognizes  the  value  of  experience  and  elects  the  same 
mayor  to  office  for  several  terms.  Many  small  cities  feel 
that  they  cannot  afford  to  pay  their  officials,  or  to  pay  more 
than  a  small  sum;  and  most  of  these  prefer  to  continue  the 
mayor-council  plan  of  government  rather  than  to  change  to 


76  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

a  plan  whose  success  depends  upon  the  city's  abihty  to 
attract  good  men  by  salaries.  One  advantage  which  the 
mayor-council  plan  has  above  other  forms  of  municipal 
government  is  the  fact  that  everyone  is  familiar  with  it,  as 
it  has  always  been  the  standard  form  in  this  country. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

Find  out  whether  your  city  is  governed  by  a  charter  or  by  general 
state  laws.  Secure  a  copy  of  the  charter  or  the  laws,  and  obtain 
from  them  the  answers  to  the  following  questions: 

1.  Under  what  plan  of  government  is  your  city  organized? 

2.  What  officials  are  elected  by  the  people?  What  are  the 
duties  of  each  official? 

3.  What  officials  are  given  office  in  some  other  way  than  by 
election?  How  does  each  one  obtain  his  position?  What  are  the 
duties  of  each? 

4.  What  are  the  principal  departments  of  work  undertaken 
by  your  city?  Who  is  at  the  head  of  each  department?  How  much 
control  over  him  do  other  officials  have?  (Remember  that  the 
power  to  grant  money  or  to  refuse  it  is  an  important  kind  of  con- 
trol.) 

5.  Write  a  brief  statement  explaining  the  mayor-council  plan 
of  city  organization,  its  advantages  and  its  disadvantages. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE  COMMISSION  AND  THE  COMMISSION- 
MANAGER   PLANS 

Origin  of  Commission  Government  in  Galveston. — 
Some  years  ago  a  great  flood  swept  over  the  city  of  Galves- 
ton, Texas,  destroying  property  of  many  kinds  and  killing 
about  six  thousand  persons.  A  large  number  of  pressing 
problems  had  to  be  faced  at  once,  such  as  relieving  destitute 
persons,  cleaning  up  the  wreckage,  making  the  city  sani- 
tary, and  providing  for  rebuilding  the  ruined  sections.  The 
politicians  who  had  been  in  power  were  not  qualified  to 
take  charge  of  things  in  this  great  emergency,  so  it  was 
decided  to  place  the  government  of  the  city  in  the  hands  of 
a  committee,  or  commission,  of  five  members. 

After  some  legal  difficulties  were  adjusted,  Galveston 
found  itself  with  a  new  charter.  This  charter  provides  that 
five  men  are  to  be  elected  from  anywhere  in  the  city,  and 
not  from  any  particular  wards.  Four  of  these  commission- 
ers take  charge  of  the  city's  work,  which  is  divided  into 
these  four  departments:  police  and  fire,  streets  and  public 
property,  waterworks  and  sewage,  and  finance  and  revenue. 
The  fifth  commissioner  is  the  mayor.  He  does  not  have  a 
department  to  manage,  but  he  is  expected  to  see  that  the 
other  commissioners  work  together  as  well  as  possible, 
and  to  advise  and  help  them  all.  These  commissioners  are 
paid  to  give  all  their  time  to  the  city's  work. 

Under  this  system  of  government,  the  city  of  Galveston 

77 


78 


EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


rose  from  its  ruins  with  surprising  speed  and  efficiency. 
Its  government  was  so  excellent  that  many  other  cities 
adopted  similar  charters  (differing  in  certain  points,  of 
course),  and  people  began  to  think  the  commission  plan 
an  almost  perfect  one.    It  was  particularly  praised  because 


The  City  Hall  in  Galveston,  Texas,  which  rcphuod  the  huilding 
destroyed  by  the  flood  in  1900.  Hero  the  experiments  in  the  com- 
mission  form  of  government  have  been  worked  out. 


it  placed  one  commissioner,  instead  of  a  committee,  at  the 
head  of  each  department  of  the  city's  business. 

Responsibility  of  Officials. — There  are  many  arguments 
in  favor  of  this  plan  of  municipal  organization.  In  the 
first  place,  some  one  man  is  responsible  for  every  branch 
of  city  work.  If  the  water  that  is  furnished  you  bj^  the 
city  is  not  pure,  if  it  has  little  pressure,  if  your  water  bill 
is  too  high,  you  know  to  whom  you  may  telephone  or  write 
about  it.  The  commissioner  cannot  refer  the  matter  to  some 
committee  of  the  council  that  will  meet  in  three  or  four 


COMMISSION  AND  COMMISSION-MANAGER  PLANS    79 

weeks  perhaps,  and  that  is  too  busy  to  see  to  it  anyway. 
It  is  his  business  to  see  to  it.  He  is  paid  to  see  to  it,  and  all 
his  time  belongs  to  the  city.  He  cannot  shift  his  responsi- 
bility to  someone  else. 

Intelligent  Voting. — In  the  second  place,  the  government 
is  so  simple  that  every  citizen  can  understand  it.  He  does 
not  have  to  vote  for  a  long  list  of  officers  whom  he  knows 
nothing  about,  but  simply  for  five  men.  It  is  entirely 
possible  for  a  citizen  to  find  out  about  the  good  and  bad 
qualities  of  these  few  candidates  and  to  make  a  choice  that 
is  based  on  knowledge. 

Business  Methods. — In  the  third  place,  this  commission 
plan  makes  business  methods  possible.  Each  commissioner 
has  a  certain  definite  amount  of  the  work  of  the  city  as- 
signed to  him,  and  he  is  responsible  for  seeing  that  his  par- 
ticular activities  are  performed  properly.  He  is  paid  enough 
so  that  he  can  afford  to  spend  all  his  time  on  the  city  work, 
and  most  of  the  city  charters  require  that  he  shall  do  so. 

Better  City  Officials. — Because  the  commissioners  are 
paid  fairly  large  salaries,  are  elected  from  a  large  district, 
and  can  be  held  responsible,  the  quality  of  city  officials  has 
been  generally  improved  under  the  commission  plan. 

Faults  of  the  Commission  Plan;  Incompetent  Men. — 
As  time  has  passed,  however,  it  has  been  seen  that  the  com- 
mission plan  has  some  faults.  One  of  these  is  the  same 
that  we  have  observed  in  the  mayor-council  plan — the  lack 
of  experience  and  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  commission- 
ers. Galveston's  ablest  men  were  willing  to  serve  on  the 
commission  in  order  to  bring  the  city  out  of  its  ruins;  but 
not  all  cities  have  been  able  to  secure  first-class  business 
men  as  commissioners.  It  often  happens  that  a  man  is 
given  charge  of  a  department  in  which  the  work  is  com- 


80  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

pletely  unknown  to  him.  Of  course,  it  is  rather  hard  to  elect 
a  man  who  is  a  good  administrator.  People  vote  for  men  be- 
cause they  like  them,  because  they  know  them  well,  or  be- 
cause they  can  get  some  advantage  from  so  doing.  A  man 
does  not  make  a  good  city  official  simply  because  he  is 
popular  or  is  well-known.  To  manage  a  large  department 
of  the  city,  he  should  have  training  for  such  work,  just  as 
the  manager  of  a  private  business  should  be  trained.  Many 
people  think  that  the  only  way  to  secure  trained  men  for 
such  positions  is  to  have  them  appointed  instead  of 
elected. 

The  Need  of  One  Responsible  Manager. — Other  people 
object  to  this  form  of  government  because  the  five  men 
elected  may  not  be  able  to  work  together.  They  argue 
that  in  every  business  or  organization  you  must  have  some 
one  to  direct  all  the  others,  if  any  large  plan  is  to  be  carried 
out.  It  would  be  rather  difficult  to  manage  a  ball  team  if 
three  or  four  captains  were  elected.  Each  one  would  want 
to  manage  affairs  in  his  own  way,  and  as  a  result  no  one 
plan  would  be  carried  out.  Several  cities  have  found  that 
when  the  five  commissioners  do  not  agree,  some  of  the  city's 
work  is  almost  sure  to  be  done  poorly.  Suppose  the  com- 
missioners are  planning  the  money  which  they  will  need  for 
the  year.  The  head  of  the  department  on  waterworks  and 
sewage  says  that  he  will  need  one  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
Three  commissioners  are  opposed  to  him,  and  since  they 
are  in  the  majority,  they  vote  to  place  in  the  budget  (that  is, 
the  plan  of  finances)  just  twenty-five  thousand  dollars. 
Of  course  the  department  will  not  be  efficiently  managed; 
yet  the  man  who  is  in  charge  of  it  is  really  not  to  blame. 
Here  again  we  find  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  who  is  actually 
responsible  for  poor  management. 


COMMISSION  AND  COMMISSION-MANAGER  PLANS    81 

The  Commission-Manager  Plan. — With  these  things  in 
mind,  thinking  people  have  tried  to  devise  a  system  that 
would  have  all  the  good  points  of  the  commission  plan  and 
would  avoid  its  faults.  They  have  studied  the  methods  of 
business  men  in  order  to  secure  ideas  for  managing  public 
business,  and  have  worked  out  a  system  of  city  government 
known  as  the  commission-manager  plan. 

Under  this  plan,  a  commission  is  elected  which  has  the 
duty  of  selecting  a  good  business  man  to  manage  the  affairs 
of  the  city.  The  commissioners  are  not  paid  tor  their  serv- 
ices, and  no  actual  work  of  management  is  expected  of 
them.  They  act  very  much  as  a  board  of  education  acts 
in  selecting  a  superintendent  of  schools.  The  members  of  a 
board  of  education  do  not  attempt  to  manage  the  schools; 
they  leave  that  to  the  expert.  Their  duty  is  to  select  the 
best  man  available  to  take  charge  of  the  school  system. 
When  city  commissioners  select  a  manager  for  the  city, 
they  are  expected  to  act  on  this  same  principle  of  choosing 
the  most  efficient  man  whom  they  can  secure.  They  are  not 
required  to  ask  his  religion  or  politics,  or  to  select  him  from 
their  own  city;  but  they  are  required  to  find  a  man  who 
understands  public  business  and  can  manage  it  well.  This 
man  is  paid  a  good  salary,  and  is  expected  to  earn  it  by  see- 
ing that  the  city's  work  is  done  efficiently. 

The  City  Manager. — The  city  manager  is  given  authority 
over  all  branches  of  the  city's  business  (with  a  few  excep- 
tions, such  as  education,  which  is  customarily  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  school  board).  He  has  the  right  to  appoint 
men  to  take  charge  of  the  various  departments  under 
his  supervision,  and  to  dismiss  them  if  they  do  not 
meet  his  requirements.  In  fact,  he  acts  just  as  the 
manager  of  a  large  private  business  would  act.    It  is  his 


82  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

duty  to  see  that  every  branch  of  the  work  is  put  on  a 
basis  of  efficiency. 

The  cities  which  have  adopted  the  commission-manager 
plan  of  government  seem,  on  the  whole,  to  be  well  pleased 
with  it.  Under  this  plan  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  person 
who  is  responsible  if  things  go  wrong.  The  manager  knows 
that  he  cannot  throw  the  blame  on  somebody  else,  so  he 
does  his  very  best  to  keep  the  city's  work  running  smoothly. 
Since  he  is  not  chosen  for  political  reasons,  he  is  not  likely 
to  lose  his  position  at  each  election;  hence  he  does  not  need 
to  spend  most  of  his  time  on  private  business  in  order  to 
have  something  to  fall  back  upon  when  he  is  dismissed. 
He  does  not  expect  to  be  dismissed  unless  he  manages  the 
city  poorly;  so  in  order  to  hold  his  position,  he  will  try  hard 
to  manage  it  well.  He  knows,  also,  that  if  he  makes  a  suc- 
cess of  his  work,  some  other  city  will  probably  ask  him  to 
come  and  manage  it,  at  an  increased  salary. 

Many  cities  claim  that  they  are  saving  money  under  this 
plan  of  government,  even  though  they  pay  their  managers 
very  large  salaries.  They  say  that  the  managers  are  han- 
dling the  city's  business  so  carefully  that  wastes  and  mistakes 
are  prevented,  and  in  many  cases  the  managers  have 
saved  more  money  than  they  are  paid. 

Responsibility  of  the  Public. — For  all  these  reasons,  the 
commission-manager  plan  is  rapidly  growing  in  favor,  and 
more  and  more  cities  are  adopting  it.  We  must  always 
remember,  however,  that  no  plan  or  method  will  work  satis- 
factorily unless  the  people  are  constantly  alert  to  see  that 
they  receive  good  service.  Dishonest  men  will  try  to  be- 
come city  managers,  just  as  they  apply  for  all  public  offices; 
and  only  continual  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  public 
will  guard  them  against  such  persons. 


COMMISSION  AND  COMMISSION-MANAGER  PLANS    83 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Go  to  a  library  and  find  an  account  of  the  Galveston  dis- 
aster. Why  was  it  impossible  for  an  ordinary  city  government 
to  handle  this  situation? 

2.  Why  are  small  committees,  or  even  single  individuals,  often 
given  complete  control  of  affairs  in  times  of  great  public  emergency? 

3.  What  advantages  are  claimed  by  advocates  of  the  com- 
mission form  of  government  over  the  mayor-council  form?  Wliat 
faults  can  be  found  with  the  commission  plan? 

4.  Why  is  it  important  for  the  citizens  to  know  who  is  responsible 
for  each  department  of  public  business? 

5.  Why  does  it  sometimes  happen  that  well-qualified  men  cannot 
secure  election? 

6.  What  advantages  are  there  in  having  the  heads  of  business 
enterprises  appointed  instead  of  elected? 

7.  Summarize  the  arguments  in  favor  of  the  commission-manager 
plan  of  city  government.    Give  arguments  against  this  plan. 

8.  What  are  the  necessary  qualifications  of  a  good  city  manager? 


CHAPTER   XV 
THE   TOWNSHIP 

Townships  in  Colonial  Times. — Townships  are  not  found 

in  every  state,  as  the  work  which  was  formerly  done  by 
them  is  now  often  divided  among  other  units  of  government. 
However,  since  they  exist  in  many  states,  we  shall  briefly 
examine  them  and  their  work. 

The  township  is  most  important  in  New  England,  where  it 
was  established  in  colonial  times.  In  those  days  villages 
were  usually  very  small  and  were  surrounded  by  farms.  The 
people  of  one  or  more  small  villages  and  the  inhabitants  of 
the  surrounding  country  used  to  organize  townships  (or 
towns,  as  they  were  often  called),  in  order  to  carry  on  cer- 
tain kinds  of  public  work.  These  townships  contained 
from  twenty  to  forty  square  miles,  as  a  rule,  and  varied  in 
shape  according  to  the  way  in  which  the  land  had  been 
settled.     Many  of  the  original  townships  remain  today. 

The  New  England  Town  Meeting. — Once  a  year  all  the 
voters  of  the  township  would  gather  in  the  town  hall  to 
hold  a  town  meeting.  Here  they  decided  upon  such  matters 
as  the  building  of  highways,  the  measures  to  be  taken 
against  the  owners  of  straying  cattle,  and  other  problems  of 
general  interest.  They  also  elected  officers  to  carry  out 
various  functions.  In  the  New  England  states  these  yearly 
town  meetings  are  still  held.  As  the  cities  have  grown  up, 
they  have  sometimes  established  governments  of  their  own, 
which  have  no  connection  with  township  government.     In 

84 


THE  TOWNSHIP  85 

other  cases,  however,  fairly  large  cities  have  preferred  to 
retain  the  old  custom  of  being  controlled  in  many  matters 
by  the  will  of  all  the  voters  of  the  township.  "The  town 
of  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  ...  has  a  population  of 
over  20,000  and  yet  retains  its  primitive  town  government. 
Even  New  Haven  and  Hartford,  Connecticut,  have  con- 
tinued the  town  organization  separate  from  the  city  gov- 
ernment." ^  The  work  of  the  township  is  quite  important, 
including  such  things  as  highway  construction,  the  build- 
ing of  schools,  the  collection  of  taxes,  the  keeping  of  records, 
the  enforcement  of  law  and  order,  and  a  number  of  other 
matters. 

Officers  of  the  Township. — The  principal  officers  of  a 
New  England  township  are  called  selectmen.  A  board 
of  selectmen  is  chosen  each  year  at  the  town  meeting  to 
carry  on  the  township  business.  At  the  same  time  other 
officers  are  chosen,  such  as  the  town  treasurer;  the  town 
clerk,  who  acts  as  secretary  at  the  town  meetings,  keeps 
records  concerning  births,  deaths,  and  marriages,  and  per- 
forms other  functions;  constal)les,  whose  duty  it  is  to  pre- 
serve order  and  to  make  arrests  when  necessary;  and  (in 
most  townships)  justices  of  the  peace,  who  try  persons 
charged  with  small  offenses.  Some  officers  are  elected,  and 
some  are  appointed  by  the  board  of  selectmen.  Persons 
who  have  always  lived  in  cities  are  amused  to  learn  that 
nearly  every  township  has  an  official  known  as  a  pound- 
keeper,  whose  duty  it  is  to  shut  up  straying  animals,  and 
to  kill  them  or  otherwise  dispose  of  them  unless  their  owners 
pay  a  fine;  and  another  official  known  as  a  fence-viewer, 
who  inspects  boundary  fences  to  see  that  they  are  in  condi- 
tion to  keep  cattle  and  other  animals  in  their  proper  place. 

1  Beard,  Charles  A.:  American  Government  and  Politics. 


86  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Townships  Outside  of  New  England. — In  several  states 
outside  ot  New  England  the  township  exists,  but  little 
interest  is  taken  in  its  affairs,  and  its  functions,  as  a  rule, 
are  unimportant.  In  the  Western  and  Southern  states 
the  township  is  seldom  found,  as  the  city  and  the  county 
generally  carry  on  all  the  work  which  is  given  to  the  town- 
ship in  New  England. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Are  there  townships  in  your  state?  If  so,  what  work  do  they 
do?  What  officers  have  charge  of  the  work?  How  are  these  officers 
given  their  positions? 

2.  If  there  are  no  townships  in  j-our  state,  what  division  of  gov- 
ernment is  in  charge  of  the  work  ordinarily  done  by  them? 

3.  Read  in  history  books  an  account  of  the  old  New  England 
town  meeting. 

4.  How  have  conditions  changed  so  that  the  township  is  no 
longer  so  important  as  it  was  in  colonial  days  and  in  the  earlier 
days  of  our  hfe  as  a  nation? 


CHAPTER   XVI 
THE   COUNTY 

Functions  of  the  County. — Every  state  in  the  Union 
is  divided  into  districts  called  counties,  with  the  exception 
of  Louisiana,  which  uses  the  name  parish  instead  of  county. 
The  county  aids  the  state  in  many  of  its  functions,  and  also 
carries  on  certain  work  of  its  own.  County  government 
and  county  functions  vary  so  much  from  state  to  state  that 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  describe  them  in  a  brief  space. 
The  following  paragraphs  will  explain  the  features  most 
commonly  found. 

Education. — ]\Iueh  of  the  state's  educational  work  is 
carried  on  by  the  county.  Special  county  officials,  such  as 
members  of  school  boards  and  superintendents  of  schools, 
supervise  the  public  schools,  examine  students  who  desire 
promotion  into  high  schools,  examine  candidates  for  teach- 
ers' licenses,  and  attend  to  other  educational  matters. 

The  Judicial  System. — In  many  states  there  are  county 
courts,  county  judges,  and  a  county  prosecuting  attorney, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  secure  evidence  against  criminals  and  to 
appear  before  the  court  and  try  to  have  them  brought  to 
justice. 

Public  Institutions  and  Highways. — County  buildings, 
such  as  poorhouses,  jails,  asylums,  and  other  institutions 
for  relief,  punishment,  or  special  care,  are  constructed  and 
maintained  by  the  county  authorities.  Ordinarily  the 
relief  of  poor  and  destitute  persons  is  a  county  function. 

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THE  COUNTY  89 

A  large  part  of  the  construction  and  the  care  of  highways  is 
generally  undertaken  by  the  county. 

Collection  of  Taxes. — A  very  important  part  of  the 
county's  work  is  the  collecting  of  taxes.  A  tax  is  a  sum  of 
money  charged  by  a  government  in  order  to  meet  its  ex- 
penses. State  taxes  are  generally  collected  by  county  officials. 

One  of  the  most  common  taxes  is  the  general  property 
tax.  An  officer,  called  a  county  assessor,  makes  a  list  of  all 
the  taxable  property  in  the  county.  The  sum  of  money 
which  must  be  raised  by  the  property  tax  each  year  is 
decided  upon .  Then  the  total  value  of  taxable  property 
is  divided  into  this  sum  in  order  to  find  the  rate  of  taxa- 
tion; that  is,  the  number  of  cents  or  mills  per  dollar's  worth 
of  property,  which  must  be  paid  to  the  county.  When  the 
rate  is  found,  the  amount  of  each  person's  taxable  property 
is  multiplied  by  the  rate,  and  the  product  is  the  tax  that  he 
must  pay. 

The  property  tax  is  collected  by  the  county  treasurer  or 
his  assistants.  A  part  of  it  is  paid  over  to  the  state,  and 
the  remainder  is  used  toward  the  expenses  of  the  county. 
In  some  states  city  taxes  also  are  collected  by  the  county. 
Other  taxes  are  collected  in  various  ways. 

The  Election  Board. — When  elections  are  to  be  held, 
whether  for  state,  county,  or  township  officials  (and  some- 
times for  municipal  officials),  a  county  election  board  usu- 
ally manages  them;  that  is,  sees  to  the  printing  of  the  ballots, 
the  securing  of  polling  places,  the  counting  of  the  ballots, 
and  other  details. 

The  Board  of  Commissioners. — Many  county  affairs 
are  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  committee,  generally  known 
as  the  county  board  or  county  board  of  commissioners. 
This  board  decides  upon  the  construction  of  roads,  the 


90  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

appointment  of  various  officials,  and  numerous  otlier  ques- 
tions. In  some  cases  the  county  board  has  charge  of  county 
health  work,  while  in  others  there  is  a  special  board  of  health. 

The  Sheriff. — An  important  county  official  is  the  sheriff. 
He  has  many  duties,  including  those  of  arresting  lawbreak- 
ers, suppressing  riots  and  disorders,  taking  charge  of  the 
county  jail,  selling  the  property  of  those  who  do  not  pay 
taxes  or  whose  property  is  to  be  sold  under  order  of  a  court, 
and  enforcing  various  orders  given  by  the  courts.  The 
sheriff  often  has  assistants  called  deputies;  and  if  he  needs 
special  help,  he  may  call  upon  any  or  every  citizen  to  aid 
him,  and  the  persons  thus  summoned  must  obey. 

The  County  Clerk. — The  records  of  county  elections  are 
often  kept  by  a  county  clerk,  who  may  also  keep  records  of 
proceedings  in  county  courts,  lists  of  mortgages  and  deeds  to 
real  estate,  and  other  valuable  information.  Sometimes  a 
part  of  this  work  is  done  by  other  officers. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  is  it  considered  advisable  to  subdivide  a  state  into 
counties? 

2.  What  kinds  of  work  are  done  by  the  counties  of  your  own 
state?  Ask  a  lawyer  or  a  county  officer  to  visit  the  class  and 
describe  all  the  kinds  of  work  done  by  your  own  county. 

3.  What  officials  are  placed  in  charge  of  the  county  work? 
Learn  the  names  of  the  principal  officials  of  your  own  county. 

4.  Are  the  various  kinds  of  county  work  performed  in  a  satis- 
factory manner?    Should  there  be  improvements  in  any  department? 

5.  What  powers  over  the  construction  of  highways  does  your 
county  possess? 

6.  What  are  the  powers  of  the  board  of  health?  Are  these 
powers  being  used  to  the  best  advantage? 

7.  Write  a  report  on  the  topic,  "What  my  County  is  Doing." 


STATE  GOVERNMENTS 

CHAPTER   XVII 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    AND    WORK    OF    STATE 
GOVERNMENTS 

Why  the  State  Government  Is  Needed. — After  seeing 
how  many  kinds  of  work  are  done  by  local  governments, 
we  may  be  incUned  to  wonder  why  state  governments  are 
necessary.  If  we  think  carefully,  however,  we  shall  realize 
that  no  city  or  county  can  give  all  the  protection  that  may 
be  needed,  or  do  all  the  things  that  must  be  done.  Con- 
sequently, a  larger  governing  body,  such  as  the  state,  must 
undertake  these  things. 

Let  us  consider  some  examples  which  prove  this  need  of  a 
state  government.  Suppose  a  business  man  wishes  to  travel 
from  his  own  city  to  another  city  in  the  state,  two  hundred 
miles  away.  While  he  is  outside  the  boundaries  of  a  city, 
who  will  protect  him  from  being  attacked  by  robbers? 
Who  will  see  that  there  are  good  roads  running  from  one  city 
to  another?  Or  suppose  that  a  family  living  in  the  country 
must  draw  drinking  water  from  a  certain  stream.  Who 
will  prevent  other  persons  from  emptying  sewage  into  that 
stream?  Again,  suppose  a  little  homeless  child  is  found 
wandering  along  a  roadside.  Who  will  care  for  him  and  see 
that  he  is  properly  educated? 

The  authority  of  local  governments  is  limited  to  their 
own  territory,  and  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  take 

91 


92  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

action  in  the  cases  which  we  have  just  considered.  To 
do  these  various  kinds  of  work,  a  division  of  government 
is  needed  which  has  authority  over  a  larger  area.  In  our 
own  country,  this  division  is  the  state. 

Why  Our  Country  Is  Divided  into  States. — Some  coun- 
tries are  divided  into  districts-  of  other  kinds,  instead  of 
states.  There  is  a  historical  reason  why  states  exist  here. 
As  we  all  know,  our  nation  was  originally  formed  by  the 
union  of  thirteen  states.  It  seemed  best  that  new  territory, 
also,  should  be  formed  into  states,  rather  than  districts; 
so  our  nation  is  now  composed  of  forty-eight  states. 

Varying  Sizes  of  the  States. — Our  states  vary  greatly 
in  size.  The  state  of  Texas,  for  example,  is  considerably 
larger  than  the  combined  areas  of  France,  Belgium,  Swit- 
zerland, and  the  Netherlands;  while  Rhode  Island  is  not 
much  larger  than  a  county  in  some  of  the  large  Western 
states.  Whether  small  or  large,  the  state  performs  many 
useful  functions,  some  of  which  we  shall  examine  later. 

Powers  of  the  States. — Before  we  go  further  in  our  study 
of  the  state,  we  must  realize  that  its  authority  has  certain 
limits.  Just  as  the  city  has  no  authority  outside  its  own 
boundaries,  so  the  state  has  no  power  beyond  its  borders. 
Just  as  the  state  controls  the  city  in  some  respects,  so  the 
national  government  controls  the  state  in  some  respects. 
Here,  however,  we  find  an  important  difference  which  we 
must  not  forget.  We  have  seen  that  the  state  gives  powers 
to  the  city,  either  through  laws  or  through  a  charter.  But 
the  national  government  does  not  give  powers  to  the  states. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  original  thirteen  states  were 
in  existence  before  the  federal  government  was  set  up.  As 
independent  states,  they  possessed  all  the  powers  that  any 
free  nation  has. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  STATE  GOVERNMENTS         93 

When  the  people  of  these  original  states  decided  to 
set  up  a  national  government,  they  gave  it  some  of  their 
powers,  but  kept  all  the  others.  The  powers  which  they 
gave  to  it  were  those  which  they  thought  could  be  exer- 
cised by  a  central  government  better  than  b}-  individual 
states.  For  example,  they  gave  the  national  government 
power  to  declare  war,  to  provide  an  army  and  a  navy, 
to  regulate  commerce  among  the  states,  and  to  do  various 
other  things  which  no  state  could  very  well  undertake. 
All  these  powers  were  listed  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  In  order  to  make  sure  that  the 
national  government  would  not  take  away  other  powers 
from  the  states,  an  amendment  was  soon  added  to  the  Con- 
stitution, providing  that  "The  powers  not  delegated  to  the 
United  States  by  the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by'  it 
to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to 
the  people."    (Amendment  X.) 

Except  in  the  case  of  powers  which  have  been  especially 
given  to  the  national  government  or  prohibited  to  the  states, 
we  find  that  states  have  complete  authority  over  their  own 
territory.  New  York,  Ohio,  Nevada,  and  Cahfornia  may 
set  up  entirely  different  systems  of  pulilic  schools,  may 
tax  different  kinds  of  propert}^  and  may  have  different 
laws  in  regard  to  the  preservation  of  game,  the  rights  of 
corporations,  the  compensation  of  workingmen  for  acci- 
dental injuries,  and  many  other  things. 

Though  the  state  allows  subdivisions  such  as  the  city, 
the  township,  and  the  county  to  do  a  good  deal  of  work, 
there  are  many  duties  which  the  state  cannot  give  to  them 
and  must  carry  on  itself.  In  the  following  chapters  we  shall 
learn  the  most  important  of  these  duties. 


94  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  is  some  larger  division  of  government  than  the  city,  or 
even  the  county,  needed? 

2.  Explain  how  our  states  came  into  existence. 

3.  How  is  authority  divided  between  the  state  and  its  subdivi- 
sions? How  is  authority  divided  between  state  and  nation?  Ex- 
plain this  difference. 

4.  How  does  it  happen  that  the  laws  of  the  various  states  differ 
so  greatly?  Do  you  consider  this  an  advantage  or  a  disadvantage? 
Explain  your  answer  fully. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
STATE   CONSTITUTIONS 

The  Constitution  as  the  Fundamental  Law. — We  have 
already  seen  that  when  people  are  to  undertake  any  work 
together,  they  must  be  guided  by  rules  and  regulations. 
Since  the  people  in  each  state  of  our  Union  are  doing  a  great 
deal  of  work  through  their  state  governments,  they  have 
written  the  general  plan  by  which  this  work  is  to  be  done 
in  a  document  known  as  a  state  constitution. 

Not  all  the  laws  of  the  state  are  placed  in  the  constitution. 
It  is  merely  a  kind  of  outline  making  the  rules  which  are 
considered  most  important,  or,  as  we  usually  say,  containing 
the  fundamental  law.  Let  us  see  what  these  important 
rules  are. 

The  Bill  of  Rights. — In  every  state  constitution  we  find 
a  bill  of  rights.  This  is  a  list  of  certain  rights  which  shall 
belong  to  all  citizens  and  shall  not  be  taken  from  them  by 
the  legislature,  by  a  judge  in  court,  or  by  any  other  govern- 
mental agent.  Thus,  every  state  constitution  says  that 
citizens  shall  not  be  deprived  of  the  right  of  free  speech,  of 
the  right  to  be  tried  fairly  when  accused  of  crime,  of  the 
right  to  hold  such  religious  views  as  they  see  fit,  and  of 
various  other  rights. 

Officers  and  Departments  of  Government. — The  organi- 
zation of  the  state  government  is  set  forth  in  certain  sec- 
tions in  the  constitution,  which  name  the  state  officers  (as 
governor,  representatives,  judges  of  various  ranks,  etc.), 

95 


96  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

tell  how  they  shall  be  chosen  for  office,  and  explain  the  du- 
ties and  the  i:)Owers  of  each.  State  constitutions  also  organ- 
ize subdivisions  of  the  state,  such  as  counties  and  townships. 
Some  constitutions  explain  the  conditions  under  which 
communities  may  become  cities  and  define  the  powers  of 
cities.  The  constitution  of  every  state  in  the  Union,  like 
that  of  the  federal  government,  establishes  three  depart- 
ments and  divides  the  work  of  government  among  them. 
They  are  called  the  legislative,  the  judicial,  and  the  exec- 
utive departments.  We  shall  learn  presently  the  mean- 
ing of  these  terms,  and  the  work  given  to  each  department. 

Elections. — Besides  outlining  the  organization  of  govern- 
^nent,  the  state  constitutions  usually  provide  for  the  way 
in  which  the  people  shall  take  part  in  public  affairs.  They 
name  the  qualifications  of  voters,  sometimes  tell  what  sys- 
tem of  voting  and  what  kind  of  ballot  shall  be  used,  and 
usually  guarantee  honest  elections.  The  legislature  always 
passes  laws  giving  more  details  on  all  these  points. 

Education  and  Social  Welfare. — Most  state  constitu- 
tions contain  sections  providing  for  free  public  schools  and 
other  helps  toward  social  welfare.  In  this  case,  as  in  many 
more,  the  details  of  such  matters  are  left  to  the  legislature. 

Regulation  of  Business. — In  the  earliest  state  constitu- 
tions we  find  no  mention  of  the  regulation  of  business,  but 
in  all  modern  ones  there  are  sections  providing  for  care- 
ful inspection  and  regulation  of  businesses  of  various  kinds. 
The  three  business  enterprises  which  practically  every 
modern  state  constitution  brings  under  government  regu- 
lation are  banking,  insurance,  and  the  railroad  business. 
These  are  all  recognized  as  businesses  in  which  the  public 
has  a  large  interest.  Many  persons  deposit  money  in  sav- 
ings banks  and  pay  for  insurance;  many  persons  own  rail- 


STATE  CONSTITUTIONS  97 

road  stocks  and  bonds,  and  nearly  everyone  uses  railroads. 
For  these  and  other  reasons,  state  constitutions  generally 
provide  that  these  important  kinds  of  business  shall  be 
carefully  regulated,  so  that  the  public  may  receive  fair 
treatment. 

Taxation. — Since  the  work  of  the  government  is  costly, 
state  constitutions  always  contain  sections  dealing  with 
financial  problems.  In  order  that  the  legislature  may  not 
be  tempted  to  spend  too  much  public  money,  most  state 
constitutions  place  a  limit  upon  its  power  to  raise  money  by 
taxation. 

Often  we  find  in  these  constitutions  a  provision  that  if 
the  state  is  planning  to  undertake  some  unusual  piece  of 
work,  such  as  the  building  of  a  great  system  of  roads  or  the 
construction  of  canals,  which  will  require  the  expenditure 
of  large  sums,  the  people  of  the  state  must  be  given  an  op- 
portunity to  vote  upon  the  matter.  If  they  believe  that  the 
benefits  which  will  come  to  them  are  worth  more  than  the 
extra  taxes  they  will  have  to  pay,  they  will  vote  in  favor  of 
the  proposition;  if  they  think  otherwise,  they  will  vote 
against  it.  All  the  regulations  in  regard  to  state  finances 
are  intended  to  protect  the  people  and  to  keep  the  state 
government  working  for  them  and  not  oppressing  them. 

Amendments  of  the  Constitution. — It  is  necessary  from 
time  to  time  that  amendments  be  made  in  state  constitu- 
tions, and  all  such  constitutions  provide  methods  by  which 
they  may  be  amended.  In  most  cases  they  require  a  pro- 
posed amendment  to  be  passed  by  two  successive  sessions  of 
the  legislature,  after  which  it  shall  be  voted  upon  by  the 
people  of  the  state.  Thus,  no  change  can  be  made  hurriedly 
and  carelessly;  and  no  change  can  be  made  by  the  legisla- 
ture alone  without  consulting  the  people.     Under  ordinary 


98  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

conditions  this  method  of  making  amendments  works  well; 
but  as  it  cannot  be  used  in  an  emergency,  some  persons 
think  that  a  quicker  and  easier  method  should  be  used. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  a  state  constitution?  Why  does  it  not  contain  every 
law  by  which  the  people  of  the  state  are  to  be  governed? 

2.  Explain  the  meaning  of  bill  of  rights.  Give  reasons  why  such 
a  bill  is  found  in  state  constitutions. 

3.  Why  do  our  state  constitutions  provide  for  the  people's  part 
in  public  affairs?  In  a  free  country  where  the  right  to  vote  is  wide- 
spread, why  are  any  qualifications  required  before  people  are 
allowed  to  vote? 

4.  Why  do  our  most  recently  established  state  constitutions 
provide  for  the  regulation  of  business,  while  earlier  ones  did  not? 

5.'  Why  are  restrictions  placed  upon  the  financial  powers  of  the 
legislature?  Why  are  the  people  permitted  to  vote  on  extraordinary 
expenditures? 

6.  Why  is  the  amending  process  made  difficult?  Do  you  think 
it  should  be  easier?    Explain  your  answer. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
THE   STATE   AND   ITS   WORK 

Division  of  Work  between  State  and  City. — The  state 
and  the  city  often  undertake  the  same  kinds  of  work,  but 
they  do  not  do  the  same  things.  For  instance,  both  city 
and  state  share  in  the  task  of  providing  pubHc  schools; 
but  the  state  acts  chiefly  as  supervisor,  while  the  city  or 
some  other  division  of  local  government  does  most  of  the 
actual  work.  However,  the  state  itself  often  provides  and 
maintains  certain  special  schools,  such  as  schools  for  the 
deaf  and  the  blind,  state  universities,  and  state  agricultural 
colleges.  This  is  due  to  the  facts  that  very  few  cities  could 
afford  such  schools  and  that  the  students  who  attend  them 
come  from  all  parts  of  the  state. 

The  state  shares  other  kinds  of  work  with  local  govern- 
ments in  much  the  same  wa3\  Thus,  it  supervises  the  con- 
struction of  highways,  the  care  of  public  health,  and  various 
other  tasks  performed  by  local  governments.  There  are 
some  things,  too,  which  the  state  alone  can  do,  and  in  which 
the  local  governments  have  no  share. 

Important  Functions  of  the  State. — Among  the  many 
kinds  of  work  undertaken  by  the  state,  some  of  the  most 
important  are  as  follows:  the  making  of  laws,  the  regula- 
tion of  business,  the  providing  of  education,  the  care  of 
special  classes,  the  care  of  public  health,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  Of  these,  the  first  one  which  we  shall  con- 
sider is  the  making  of  laws.  , 

99 


100  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Why  We  Have  Laws. — We  saw  in  the  first  chapter  of  this 
book  that,  just  as  an  athletic  association  has  to  have  rules 
to  go  by,  so  does  every  government.  When  we  try  to  do 
things  together,  we  have  to  make  plans  for  doing  them.  For 
example,  when  we  plan  to  build  highways,  we  have  to  plan 
how  much  money  will  be  spent,  how  the  money  will  be 
raised,  and  who  will  have  charge  of  the  work.  In  case  we 
borrow  the  money  by  selling  bonds,  we  must  make  plans 
for  repaying  the  loan.  If  the  state  establishes  a  university, 
it  must  likewise  plan  how  it  shall  be  managed.  Such  plans 
are  usuallj^  made  in  the  form  of  laws. 

Laws  Regarding  Personal  Relationships. — We  can  readily 
see  that  there  must  be  many  kinds  of  laws  besides  those 
which  involve  the  planning  of  work.  Let  us  examine  some 
of  them.  In  the  first  place,  we  have  laws  or  rules  regulating 
certain  human  relationships,  such  as  marriage  and  divorce. 
Before  a  man  and  a  woman  can  be  married,  the  law  says  that 
they  must  procure  a  license.  This  is  a  permit  from  the  state 
to  get  married.  This  permit  is  required  in  order  that  the 
state  may  know  who  is  responsible  for  the  care  of  any  children 
that  they  may  have,  who  is  entitled  to  receive  property  in 
case  of  the  death  of  the  parents,  and  for  various  other  reasons. 

Laws  Regarding  Property. — We  have  many  laws  regard- 
ing property  rights.  These  laws  say  what  kind  of  things 
shall  be  property,  how  property  shall  be  transferred  from 
one  person  to  another,  what  evidences  shall  be  given  that 
property  has  been  transferred,  who  shall  inherit  property, 
and  how  property  may  be  bequeathed. 

Thus,  the  laws  may  provide  that  certain  kinds  of  game 
or  wild  animals  shall  not  be  the  property  of  any  individual, 
even  the  man  on  whose  land  they  are  found,  and  that  they 
must  not  be  killed  or  captured.    On  the  other  hand,  it  may 


THE  STATE  AND  ITS  WORK  101 

provide  that  a  limited  amount  of  certain  game  may  })e 
killed  and  shall  be  the  property  of  the  man  who  kills  it; 
but  at  the  same  time  the  owner  may  be  forbidden  to  sell  the 
game,  or  to  transfer  it  to  another  person  except  by  giving  it 
away.  In  case  real  estate  is  to  be  transferred,  the  law  may 
require  deeds  to  be  signed  by  everyone  concerned,  so  that 
there  will  he  written  evidence  that  the  propertj^  has  changed 
hands.  Every  state  has  laws  regulating  the  making  of  wills, 
and  laws  naming  the  relatives  who  shall  inherit  property,  if  a 
person  dies  without  leaving  a  will.  We  can  easily  see  how 
necessary  these  property  laws  are. 

Laws  Relating  to  Business. — Another  large  set  of  social 
rules  or  laws  consists  of  those  which  help  to  create  certain 
kinds  of  business  organizations  or  else  to  regulate  business. 
Let  us  examine  some  of  these.  Suppose  that  you  deposit 
your  money  in  a  savings  bank.  You  wish  to  know  ab- 
solutely that  you  can  get  it  again  when  you  want  it.  But 
how  do  you  know  that  the  banker  is  not  careless  or  dishon- ' 
est,  so  that  when  you  ask  him  for  your  money,  he  will  l^e 
unable  to  give  it  to  you?  If  there  were  no  laws  regulating 
savings  banks,  this  is  just  what  might  happen.  Suppose, 
however,  the  state  law  says  that  no  money  placed  in  sav- 
ings banks  can  be  invested  by  those  banks  in  anything  but 
United  States  government  bonds,  state  bonds,  or  city  bonds 
of  certain  sorts.  Now  these  bonds,  being  backed  by  the 
whole  national  government,  state  government,  or  city  gov- 
ernment, alwaj^s  are  a  good  investment  and  always  will  sell 
for  just  about  as  much  as  their  face  value.  They  can 
always  be  sold  very  easily.  Because  of  this  regulation  by 
the  state  regarding  the  kind  of  securities  in  which  a  sav- 
ings bank  may  invest,  you  are  able  to  go  to  the  bank  at  any 
time,  after  a  few  days'  notice,  and  get  your  money. 


102 


EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 


Laws  to  Protect  the  Citizens.— The  state  makes  many 
laws  in  order  to  protect  the  health,  safety,  and  welfare 

of  its  citizens.  It 
may  pass  laws,  for 
histance,  prohibit- 
ing the  selling  of 
impure  foods  or 
milk,  and  the  sell- 
ing of  goods  that 
are  of  short  weight. 
It  may  say  that 
cattle  affected  by 
certain  diseases 
shall  be  dipped  in 
a  certain  solution 
in  order  to  free 
them  from  the  dis- 
eases. It  may  say 
that  no  one  shall 
be  a  railroad  en- 
gineer unless  he 
takes  an  examina- 

An  inspector  of  wcii^lits  and   nifasiiics  ^•isitiIlg■    .  i  i  • 

the  public  markets  to  teat  the  correctness  of  the  tlOn  tO  See  tnat  illS 
scales  and  measures  used.  There  is  a  heavy  fine  for  pyes  are  ffOod  and 
attempting  to  cheat  the  consumer  by  using  faulty      ^  °         ' 

scales.  All  condemned  weights  and  measures  are  nO  One  shall  prac- 
dostroyed.  ,•  i-    • 

tice  medicme  un- 
less he  has  taken  certain  studies  or  passed  certain  exam- 
inations. 

Every  state  has  many  laws  defining  various  crimes,  fel- 
onies, and  misdemeanors,  forbidding  all  persons  to  commit 
these  acts,  and  fixing  penalties  for  disobedience. 

In  all  these  ways,  therefore,  the  state  passes  laws  for 


THE  STATE  AND  IT8  WORK  103 

the  welfare  of  its  citizens.  It  is  the  state,  much  more  than 
either  the  national  or  the  local  governments,  that  makes 
laws  regulating  the  everyday  lives  of  its  citizens. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Name  as  many  kinds  of  work  as  you  can  which  are  shared 
by  state  and  local  governments.  Explain  the  reason  why  this  is 
true,  in  each  case. 

2.  Why  are  the  laws  of  a  state  ordinarily  more  numerous  and 
more  complicated  than  those  of  a  city? 

3.  Name  several  enterprises  that  must  he  planned  by  the  state. 
What  would  be  the  result  if  these  were  luidertaken  without  care- 
ful plans? 

4.  Give  examples  of  laws  in  regard  to  property  and  the  use  of 
property.  Why  may  not  a  person  use  his  property  exactly  as  he 
pleases? 

5.  Why  do  the  laws  regulate  very  carefully  the  savings  bank  and 
insurance  companies,  which  handle  the  money  of  a  great  many 
people  and  promise  to  repay  it  under  certain  conditions? 

6.  Why  are  many  crimes  punished  by  the  state  rather  than  the 
city? 

7.  Why  are  many  laws  in  regard  to  health,  safety,  and  general 
welfare  made  and  enforced  by  the  state?  Wliat  would  be  the  result 
if  a  city  made  laws  in  regard  to  contagious  diseases,  but  no  division 
of  government  made  such  laws  to  govern  people  living  outside  the 
city  who  came  in  on  errands? 


104 


CHAPTER  XX 
EDUCATION 

State  Supervision  of  Schools. — As  we  already  know,  cities 
and  school  districts  have  direct  charge  of  our  pubhc  schools; 
but  every  state  does  more  or  less  work  in  supervising,  di- 
recting, and  helping  the  local  school  authorities. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  describe  this  work,  as  it  varies 
greatly  from  state  to  state.  We  may  saj',  however,  that  in 
every  state  we  find  some  person  or  persons  with  authority 
to  inspect  the  work  of  all  public  schools,  map  out  courses 
of  study,  require  reports,  and  give  examinations.  In  some 
cases  this  authority  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of 
education  or  a  board  of  regents;  in  other  instances  it  be- 
longs to  one  person,  such  as  a  state  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion; while  occasionally  we  find  both  a  board  of  education 
and  a  state  superintendent.  County  superintendents  of 
schools  are  often  selected  to  supervise  the  work  of  the  school 
districts,  examine  teachers,  grant  certificates  to  those  who 
meet  requirements,  and  perform  many  similar  duties. 

Financial  Aid  from  the  State. — In  most  states  the  local 
school  authorities  have  the  legal  right  to  decide  the  school 
problems;  but  in  order  to  induce  them  to  decide  in  favor  of 
progressive  methods,  the  state  often  gives  special  financial 
aid  to  schools  which  maintain  a  certain  standard  of  work. 
For  example,  if  a  school  is  kept  open  for  a  given  number  of 
weeks  during  the  year,  if  the  textbooks  used  are  approved 
by  the  state  educational  authorities,  if  the  teachers  are 

105 


106  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

properly  qualified,  and  if  various  other  requirements  are 
met,  the  state  pays  to  the  local  school  board  a  certain 
amount  of  money.  Most  local  school  authorities  are  very 
willing  to  keep  their  schools  up  to  the  state  standard  in  order 
to  secure  this  financial  help. 

Opportunities  for  Higher  and  Professional  Education. — 
Many  states  maintain  not  only  ordinary  public  schools,  but 
normal  schools,  colleges,  and  universities,  where  instruction 
is  given  free  of  charge.  State  universities  are  more  com- 
mon in  the  Western  states  than  in  the  Eastern  ones,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  many  long-established  private  colleges  and 
universities  are  found  in  the  East. 

The  majority  of  state  universities  offer  a  wide  variety  of 
courses,  including  not  only  literature,  science,  mathematics, 
and  languages,  but  many  subjects  which  will  enable  stu- 
dents to  prepare  for  a  profession  or  a  chosen  life-work.  At 
many  of  these  universities  students  may  prepare  to  be 
electrical  or  chemical  engineers,  pharmacists,  dentists, 
physicians,  or  lawyers — to  mention  only  a  few  possibilities. 

Agricultui-al  Colleges. — A  number  of  states  maintain 
separate  agricultural  colleges,  with  experimental  farms, 
herds  of  registered  cattle,  examples  of  improved  farm  ma- 
chinery, and  the  necessary  buildings  and  apparatus  for 
training  students  in  every  branch  of  modern  scientific 
agriculture.  Some  of  these  colleges  offer  short  courses  of 
a  few  weeks  arranged  so  that  farmers  can  attend  them  at 
seasons  when  farm  work  is  not  pressing.  The  colleges 
occasionally  send  out  lecturers  and  demonstrators  to  meet 
farmers  who  cannot  spare  even  the  few  weeks  needed  for  a 
short  course,  and  to  show  them  how  to  deal  with  a  rust  or  a 
blight,  how  to  treat  certain  diseases  of  cattle,  how  to  test 
soil  or  seed,  and  various  other  things.    Much  of  the  wonder- 


EDUCATION  107 

ful  progress  made  by  the  American  farmer  since  the  he- 
ginning  of  the  twentieth  century  is  due  to  the  educational 
work  carried  on  by  our  states. 

Inspection  of  Schools. — In  the  various  states  there  are 
many  different  plans  for  inspecting  and  examining  schools. 
High  schools  are  often  inspected  by  officials  connected  with 
the  state  university,  so  that  the  university  can  be  sure  that 
their  preparation  for  higher  work  is  sufficient;  while  the 
graded  schools  are  inspected  by  county  or  state  officials. 
The  object  of  inspection  is  to  see  that  all  schools  are  doing 
the  very  best  work  possible. 

School  Attendance. — ]\Iany  states  have  laws  requiring 
the  schools  to  remain  in  session  annually  for  a  definite 
number  of  weeks.  In  most  states,  also,  children  of  specified 
ages  are  required  to  attend  school  for  a  certain  number  of 
days  each  year. 

Thus  we  find  that  the  state  is  opening  to  every  citizen 
the  great  opportunity^  of  receiving  an  education.  Almost 
any  lx)y  or  girl  of  ambition  can  take  advantage  of  this 
opportunity,  and  receive  training  that  will  mean  a  happy 
life,  a  useful  occupation,  a  good  income,  and  the  power 
of  serving  state  and  nation  as  an  intelligent  citizen. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  authorities  are  in  control  of  the  work  of  education  in 
your  state?    What  are  their  powers  and  duties? 

2.  What  subdivisions,  as  counties  and  school  districts,  aid  the 
state  in  its  work?  What  officers  are  found  in  each  subdivision? 
What  are  the  duties  of  these  officers? 

3.  Under  what  conditions  docs  your  state  give  financial  aid  to 
local  school  districts?  Make  a  list  of  the  requirements  for  all 
schools  receiving  such  aid.  Does  your  own  school  meet  these  re- 
quirements, or  surpass  them? 


108  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

4.  What  colleges,  universities,  and  normal  schools  are  main- 
tained by  your  state?  Send  for  catalogues  from  these,  and  describe 
the  work  done  by  each. 

5.  Describe  the  system  of  school  inspection  used  in  your  state. 

6.  What  laws  are  in  force  in  your  state  as  to  the  attendance  of 
children  at  school?  Do  you  think  that  conditions  in  your  state 
are  such  that  a  longer  attendance  should  be  required?  Give 
reasons  for  your  answer. 

7.  Write  a  report  on  the  topic,  "What  my  State  is  Doing  to 
educate  its  Citizens." 


CHAPTER   XXI 
CARE   OF   SPECIAL   CLASSES 

Special  State  Institutions. — Every  state  maintains  in- 
stitutions for  the  care  of  special  classes  of  persons  who  are 
not  able  to  care  for  themselves,  and  whose  relatives  are 
either  unable  to  support  them  or  unable  to  provide  suitable 
conditions  and  proper  training.  In  some  cases  these  in- 
stitutions make  no  charge;  in  other  cases  they  require 
payments  from  those  inmates  whose  families  are  able  to 
pay. 

Taking  Care  of  the  Mentally  Weak. — The  care  of  the 
insane  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  state's  work  today. 
Instead  of  being  allowed  to  wander  about  the  country  to  be 
the  sport  of  heartless  persons,  or  being  chained  in  dark 
cells  if  they  seem  dangerous,  as  used  to  be  the  case,  the 
insane  are  today  kept  in  clean,  comfortal)le  buildings 
and  given  the  best  of  care.  They  are  examined  by  experts 
who  trj^  to  find  the  cause  of  their  mental  trouble,  and  to  re- 
move this  cause  if  possible.  In  many  cases  cures  are  made; 
and  even  when  the  mental  powers  cannot  l)e  restored  com- 
pletely, it  is  often  possible  to  improve  a  patient's  condition 
so  much  that  he  can  do  pleasant  and  useful  work. 

Feeble-minded  persons  are  also  cared  for  by  the  state. 
Unlike  the  insane,  these  persons  have  never  had  good  minds, 
but  have  been  "foolish,"  as  the  common  saying  goes,  all 
their  lives.  The  feeble-minded  are  of  many  grades,  from 
the  person  whose  mind  is  just  a  little  below  the  normal 

109 


no  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

standard,  to  the  poor  idiot  who  seenivS  to  have  no  mind  at 
all.  Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  give  good  minds  to  people 
born  without  them;  but  feeble-minded  persons  of  the  higher 
grades  can  often  be  trained  to  do  various  kinds  of  work 
which  will  enable  them  to  support  themselves.  This  makes 
their  lives  happy  and  saves  the  state  a  good  deal  of  expense. 

Taking  Care  of  Wayward  Children. — Delinquent  young 
persons — that  is,  boys  and  girls  who  have  repeatedly 
broken  the  laws  or  perhaps  even  committed  serious  crimes 
— are  sent  to  special  state  institutions.  Here  they  are 
kept  out  of  temptation  and  are  trained  in  some  useful  trade 
or  other  means  of  self-support.  How  much  better  this  is 
than  the  old-fashioned  method  of  sending  delinquent  chil- 
dren to  jail!  The  adult  criminals  there  taught  the  children 
to  pick  pockets,  snatch  purses,  and  do  all  the  other  wrong 
things  which  they  themselves  practiced.  This  method  was 
almost  sure  to  turn  a  wayward  child  into  a  criminal,  while  a 
good  industrial  education  will  make  it  possible  for  him  to 
earn  an  honest  living  and  be  a  good  memlier  of  society. 

Taking  Care  of  Homeless  Children. — Orphans,  children 
deserted  by  their  parents,  children  whose  parents  are  not 
able  to  rear  them  properly,  and  other  children  who  must 
depend  on  charity  for  their  support  are  often  cared  for  in 
state  institutions.  There  are  still  many  private  charitable 
institutions  and  children's  homes  in  existence,  but  these 
are  nearly  all  inspected  and  supervised  by  the  state,  to  make 
sure  that  the  children  kept  in  them  are  receiving  proper 
care.  While  children  are  in  these  homes,  they  are  educated 
in  the  subjects  taught  in  the  regular  public  schools;  and 
in  many  cases  they  attend  some  public  school  near  by. 
They  are  also  trained  in  various  kinds  of  work,  so  that  if 
they  are  not  adopted  by  private  families,  they  will  be  able 


CARE  OF  SPECIAL  CLASSES 


111 


to  support  themselves  when  they  become  too  old  to  remain 
in  the  institutions. 

The  Care  of  Tubercular  Patients. — Many  states  are  now 
undertaking  the  care  of  persons  afflicted  with  certain  dis- 
eases which  have  proved  to  be  dangerous  to  the  public 


The  men  in  this  picture  served  in  the  army  during  the  World  War  and 
were  wounded  or  otherwise  disabled.  They  are  being  trained  to  operate 
linotype  machines. 


health.  A  vigorous  campaign  has  been  carried  on  every- 
where to  educate  the  public  in  fighting  tuberculosis,  and 
in  many  states  public  sanatoria  have  been  built  especially 
for  tubercular  patients.  Like  many  other  state  institu- 
tions, these  generally  ask  fees  from  those  who  are  able  to 
pay,  but  admit  poor  persons  free  of  charge.  Here  the 
most  desirable  sanitary  conditions,  the  most  suitable  food, 


112  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

and  the  best  of  care  are  provided,  and  the  medical  attention 
and  the  nursing  are  of  the  highest  order.  These  institutions 
have  saved  many  Hves  directly,  and  have  helped  indirectly 
to  save  many  more  by  the  educational  effect  which  they 
have  had  in  proving  that  tuberculosis  can  be  cured  by  right 
methods  of  treatment. 

Helping  the  Handicapped. — Most  states  have  special 
institutions  where  the  blind,  the  deaf,  the  crippled,  and 
other  persons  with  some  defect  may  be  educated  and 
trained.  Modern  science  has  devised  many  ways  of  teach- 
ing them,  until  now  they  are  not  only  educated  like  other 
persons,  but  are  trained  to  earn  their  livings.  After  the 
deaf  have  been  taught  to  speak  and  to  understand  lip- 
reading,  they  can  enter  many  different  occupations.  The 
blind  learn  weaving,  wood-carving,  certain  kinds  of  metal- 
work,  and  many  other  things.  Cripples  learn  whatever 
their  individual  cases  will  permit.  During  the  World  War, 
many  new  methods  were  devised  for  training  injured  men, 
and  since  the  war  much  valuable  work  has  been  done  by 
various  states,  as  well  as  by  the  federal  government,  in  the 
work  of  teaching  them  trades  and  occupations. 

Some  states  have  other  institutions  for  special  classes  of 
persons,  such  as  homes  for  old  soldiers.  Every  state  in  the 
Union  undertakes  the  care  of  some  of  the  special  classes 
which  we  have  just  examined,  and  thus  prevents  much 
suffering  and  does  a  great  deal  of  good. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  the  difference  between  insanity  and  feeble-minded- 
ness.    What  kind  of  treatment  is  needed  in  each  case? 

2.  Why  is  it  usually  the  state  that  cares  for  the  insane  and  the 
feeble-minded?    What  institutions  for  the  care  of  such  persons  are 


CARE  OF  SPECIAL  CLASSES  113 

maintained  by  j^our  state?     What  can  you  learn  of  the  work  of 
these  institutions? 

3.  Name  your  state  institutions  for  the  care  of  deHnquent 
children.  What  kinds  of  training  are  given  in  these?  What  is  the 
value  of  such  institutions? 

4.  Does  your  state  maintain  a  home  for  the  care  of  orphans 
and  other  dependent  children?  Does  it  inspect  private  institu- 
tions maintained  for  this  purpose?  What  legal  requirements  are 
made  of  all  institutions  that  care  for  children?  What  training  is 
given  the  children? 

5.  Are  any  institutions  for  the  cure  of  tuberculosis  and  the  train- 
ing of  handicapped  j^ersons  maintained  l:)y  your  state?  Find  out  as 
much  as  possible  about  the  work  of  these  institutions. 

6.  Do  state  institutions  for  the  care  of  special  classes  of  persons 
benefit  you  and  other  citizens,  as  well  as  the  inmates?  Explain 
your  answer 


CHAPTER  XXII 
PUBLIC   HEALTH 

Advance  in  Public  Health  Work. — If  we  were  able  to 
look  back  upon  the  work  of  the  state  a  hundred  years  ago, 
we  should  see  that  at  that  time  it  did  very  little  for  its 
citizens  compared  to  what  it  is  doing  today.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  regard  to  health.  A  century  ago  nothing 
was  known  about  germs,  and  people  did  not  know  that  most 
diseases  can  be  prevented.  Today,  however,  we  know  that 
all  such  diseases  as  smallpox,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  and 
tuberculosis  are  caused  by  germs.  If  we  can  keep  these 
germs  from  entering  into  people's  systems,  we  have  to  a  large 
extent  prevented  disease. 

To  prevent  dangerous  germs  from  spreading  and  to  keep 
people  from  coming  into  contact  with  them,  requires  great 
vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  state,  for  these  germs  come  to 
people  in  many  different  ways.  Typhoid  germs  may  be 
spread,  for  instance,  by  impure  milk,  impure  water,  or 
food  which  has  become  contaminated  by  them.  Other 
germs  may  be  spread  in  different  ways.  The  problem  of 
the  state  is  to  see  to  it  that  food,  milk,  and  water  are  pure, 
and  that  persons  who  have  contagious  diseases  do  not  pass 
on  the  germs  to  other  people. 

Protection  of  the  Water  Supply. — A  good  deal  of  this 
work  of  protecting  health  is  done  by  cities,  as  we  have  seen; 
but  their  authority  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  all  needs.  For 
example,  a  city  cannot  prevent  persons  who  live  out  in  the 

114 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  115 

country  from  throwing  sewage  and  garbage  into  the  stream 
from  which  the  city's  drinking  water  is  drawn;  nor  can  it 
prevent  persons  who  have  smahpox  or  scarlet  fever  from 
handhng  apples,  potatoes,  or  other  articles  of  food  which 
are  to  be  shipped  into  the  city.  The  state,  however,  has  the 
power  to  regulate  all  such  dangerous  practices.  In  order 
to  protect  people  from  the  germs  that  come  from  an  impure 
water  supply,  the  states  are  now  beginning  to  regulate  the 
use  of  all  the  streams  of  the  state  in  order  to  keep  them  pure. 
Some  of  the  states,  for  instance,  will  not  let  sewage  or  other 
impurities  be  dumped  into  their  rivers.  Some  of  them  are 
seeing  that  the  stagnant  waters  of  the  state  are  drained  so 
that  they  will  not  furnish  a  good  breeding  place  for  mos- 
quitoes, which  are  known  to  carry  the  germs  of  malaria 
and  other  diseases.  Some  states  also  provide  that,  before 
any  town  or  city  can  establish  a  water  supply  or  increase 
its  water  supply,  it  must  first  consult  the  state  board  of 
health. 

Protection  of  the  Food  Supply. — States  are  also  taking 
measures  to  protect  the  food  supply.  It  has  been  found  out 
that  in  many  instances  foods  have  been  adulterated,  or 
harmful  preservatives  have  been  added  to  them.  Many 
states  are  passing  laws  which  require  all  those  who  manu- 
facture food  or  who  deal  in  food  to  l)e  licensed.  The  state 
also  lays  down  certain  standards  of  purity  for  food  and 
requires  all  food  manufactured  or  sold  to  come  up  to  these 
standards.  In  case  any  dealer  does  not  comply  with  the 
law,  his  license  is  revoked. 

Prevention  of  Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis  has  been 
called  "the  Great  White  Plague."  Thousands  of  persons 
in  each  state  have  been  dying  from  this  one  disease  each 
year.     At  last  the  states  are  awakening  to  the  fact  that 


116  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

tuberculosis  is  a  disease  that  is  not  only  curable  but  also 
preventable.  We  have  found  that  there  are  several  condi- 
tions which  tend  to  cause  tuberculosis,  and  that  by  prevent- 
ing these  conditions  we  can  to  a  large  extent  prevent  the 
disease.  The  victims  of  tuberculosis  suffer  from  this  dis- 
ease largely  because  of  overcrowding  in  houses  without 
sufficient  fresh  air  and  light,  working  at  such  occupations  as 


The  dust  shed  by  these  grinding  and  polishing  wheels  is  carried  into  the 
hoods  and  away  through  the  pipes,  so  that  the  workers  do  not  breathe  it. 

marble-cutting,    where   dust   is   continually   breathed,   in- 
sufficient clothing  and  food,  and  lack  of  cleanliness. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  the  state  can  prevent 
tuberculosis.  It  can  carry  out  an  educational  campaign, 
showing  the  causes  of  this  disease  and  the  methods  of  curing 
it.  It  can  demand  that  houses  and  factories  be  built  in 
such  a  way  that  there  shall  be  plenty  of  light  for  each  person, 
and  that  these  places  shall  not  be  overcrowded.    It  may  also 


PUBLIC  HEALTH  117 

demand  sufficient  ventilation  in  all  houses  and  factories. 
Much  can  be  done  by  educating  the  people  to  a  greater 
degree  of  cleanliness. 

Work  of  the  State  Health  Authorities. — State  boards  of 
health  are  found  in  most  states.  In  some  the  state  health 
activities  are  intrusted  to  a  commissioner  of  health  or  to 
both  a  l)oard  and  a  commissioner.  In  certain  states  the 
state  health  authorities  may  request  and  advise,  but  not 
compel,  the  local  boards  of  health  to  do  various  things, 
siich  as  to  quarantine  certain  diseases,  to  send  samples  of 
drinking  water  for  examination,  and  to  enforce  sanitary 
regulations.  In  other  cases  the  state  health  authorities  are 
given  the  power  to  compel  obedience,  so  that  no  ignorant 
or  obstinate  local  board  of  health  can  interfere  with  the 
welfare  of  all  the  people  of  the  state. 

State  health  authorities  do  many  things  besides  those 
which  we  have  named.  In  case  an  epidemic  occurs,  it  is 
their  dut}'  to  use  every  possible  method  of  stamping  it  out. 
They  usually  do  a  great  deal  of  educational  work,  such  as 
publishing  pamphlets  and  newspaper  articles  on  sanitation 
and  the  prevention  of  disease.  Sometimes  they  distribute 
vaccine  serum  and  other  serums  and  antitoxins,  regulate 
all  dairies  and  slaughter-houses  to  insure  cleanliness,  and 
carry  on  research  into  the  methods  of  curing  certain  dis- 
eases. We  can  easily  see  how  valuable  this  work  is  and  how 
much  illness  and  suffering  are  saved  to  the  people  of  a  state 
by  the  activities  of  the  state  health  authorities. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  how  germs  cause  disease. 

2.  Why  has  our  knowledge  of  germs  led  to  new  methods  of  fighting 
diseases,  and  new  care  and  precaution  in  regard  to  their  spread? 


118  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

3.  Explain  how  flies  and  mosquitoes  spread  disease. 

4.  Mention  ways  in  which  drinking  water  may  become  con- 
taminated. 

5.  Is  your  state  taking  any  measures  to  exterminate  flies  and 
mosquitoes? 

6.  What  state  laws  regulate  the  water  supply  of  cities  and 
towns? 

7.  What  laws  in  regard  to  purity  of  food  are  in  force  in  your 
state?  What  officers  enforce  these  laws?  What  powers  and  duties 
have  they? 

8.  Is  your  state  taking  any  active  measures  for  the  prevention 
of  tuberculosis?    If  so,  describe  these. 

9.  How  is  your  state  board  of  health  organized?  What  are  its 
chief  activities  and  duties? 

10.  What  has  the  state  board  of  health  done  recently  to  improve 
the  public  health  or  to  stamp  out  disease? 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
THE  JUDICIAL  POWER   OF  THE   STATE 

The  Old  Method  of  Punishing  Criminals. — One  of  the 
most  important  branches  of  the  state's  work  is  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice;  that  is,  the  fair  settlement  of  legal  dis- 
putes, the  protection  of  citizens  against  fraud,  the  punish- 
ment of  criminals,  and  similar  matters.  In  olden  times 
many  crimes  were  punished  by  the  injured  person  or  his 
relatives.  The  punishments  were  often  excessively  severe. 
The  relatives  of  the  criminal  would  defend  him  and  seek  for 
vengeance  upon  the  family  which  had  punished  him.  Thus 
the  two  families  would  become  bitter  enemies,  and  often 
their  quarrels  would  be  taken  up  by  their  friends,  so  that 
disorder  and  murder  would  be  common.  In  all  the  more 
civilized  parts  of  the  world  it  is  now  seen  that  such  a  state 
of  affairs  is  very  objectionable,  as  it  means  that  one  crime 
leads  to  another,  year  after  year. 

Advantages  in  Punishment  by  the  Government. — It  has 
been  found  much  better  to  give  over  to  governments  the 
power  to  punish  crime.  There  are  several  reasons  why  this 
is  an  improvement  on  the  old  system.  The  punishments 
are  more  likely  to  be  fair  when  they  are  laid  down  by  law 
than  when  they  are  planned  by  the  injured  person.  Since 
the  judge  and  the  jury  are  not  friends  or  enemies  of  either 
side,  and  their  decision  is  impartial,  there  is  no  excuse  for 
undertaking  a  quarrel  with  them  and  committing  more 
crimes.    The  criminal  is  sure  of  having  his  side  of  the  story 

119 


120  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

heard  in  court;  and  in  case  a  person  is  falsely  accused,  he 
has  the  opportunity  to  prove  his  innocence.  Judges  and 
official  trials  have  existed  from  early  times,  but  they  were 
often  ignored  by  persons  who  preferred  private  vengeance. 
Today,  however,  all  modern  governments  have  complete 
power  to  deal  with  lawbreakers,  and  a  person  who  commits  a 
crime  of  vengeance  is  punished  for  it.  The  result  is  that 
we  have  much  more  order  and  safety  than  formerly. 

The  Judicial  Power  of  the  States. — In  the  United  States 
most  crimes  are  punished  by  the  individual  states.  Treason 
and  certain  other  crimes  against  the  nation  are  punished 
by  the  federal  government,  but  it  cannot  undertake  the 
work  of  doing  justice  in  every  case  of  lawbreaking  in  this 
great  country.  As  we  already  know,  minor  violations  of 
law  are  punished  by  the  city;  but  it  is  the  state  which 
punishes  for  murder,  arson,  burglary,  forgery,  and  many 
other  offenses.  A  man  who  commits  such  a  crime  is  con- 
sidered to  be  a  dangerous  person  to  everyone  in  the  state; 
therefore,  the  state  inflicts  the  penalty  for  his  offense.  Other 
reasons  why  the  state,  rather  than  the  city,  does  this  work 
are  as  follows:  some  crimes  are  committed  outside  of  cities; 
few  cities  could  afford  to  maintain  prisons  suitable  for  the 
retention  and  training  of  men  who  must  remain  in  them 
for  long  periods  of  time,  particularly  as  only  a  few  persons 
would  occupy  the  prisons;  one  ihan  may  rob  banks  or  com- 
mit other  crimes  in  several  different  cities,  and  the  best  way 
to  p'j.nish  him  is  to  place  him  in  the  hands  of  the  state. 

The  authority  to  try  offenders,  punish  crime,  and  decide 
legal  disputes  justly,  is  known  as  the  judicial  power.  The 
state  exercises  its  judicial  power  by  means  of  a  system  of 
courts.  It  permits  cities,  villages,  and  other  subdivisions 
to  take  over  some  of  the  work  of  doing  justice  by  establish- 


THE  JUDICIAL  POWER  OF  THE  STATE  121 

ing  courts  for  the  trial  of  unimportant  cases,  as  we  have 
seen. 

Justices  of  the  Peace  and  Municipal  Courts. — The  lowest 
court  is  held  by  a  justice  of  the  peace,  who  decides  disputes 


The  judge  who  conducts  the  trial  is  seated  at  the  raised  desk.  The  jury 
in  their  "box  "  at  the  left  of  the  picture  are  listening  to  the  examination  of 
witnesses. 


over  small  amounts  or  tries  persons  accused  of  petty  of- 
fenses. Thus,  if  the  man  renting  your  father's  house  will 
not  pay  his  rent  for  the  month,  the  case  may  be  brought 
before  the  justice  of  the  peace.  If  a  boy  steals  your  watch, 
he  might  be  brought  to  this  court  for  trial.  In  large  cities 
there  are  often  established  two  courts  that  do  the  ordinary 
work  of  the  justice  of  the  peace.  One  of  these  municipal 
courts  may  hear  civil  cases,  or  cases  in  which  only  property 
or  money  is  involved;  while  the  other  may  hear  the  cases 


122  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

of  persons  accused  of  petty  stealing,  fighting,  spitting  on  the 
sidewalk,  and  like  offenses. 

County  Courts. — In  most  states,  also,  there  are  county 
courts;  that  is,  courts  that  hear  and  decide  certain  cases 
arising  in  the  county.  They,  as  a  rule,  hear  cases  of  more 
importance  than  the  cases  tried  in  the  courts  of  the  justice 
of  the  peace  or  the  municipal  courts.  Questions  involving 
larger  sums  of  money  or  more  serious  offenses  are  brought 
before  them.  In  many  instances  they  hear  appeals  from 
the  lower  courts;  that  is,  if  one  of  the  parties  believes  that 
he  did  not  secure  justice  in  the  court  of  the  justice  of  the 
peace,  or  in  the  municipal  court,  he  may  have  the  case 
tried  in  the  higher  court. 

District  Courts  and  the  Supreme  Court. — In  many  states 
there  is  a  district,  superior,  or  circuit  court,  which  may  try 
cases  involving  any  amount  of  money  or  any  crime.  The 
judges  of  these  courts  may  be  elected  from  larger  districts 
than  the  county.  They  hold  terms  of  court  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  state  at  different  times  of  the  year. 

At  the  head  of  our  state  judicial  system  stands,  as  a  rule, 
some  supreme  court  or  court  of  last  resort.  It  deals  pri- 
marily with  appeals  from  the  lower  courts.  Its  decisions 
are  final. 

Special  Courts. — In  many  states  other  courts  are  organ- 
ized for  special  purposes,  such  as  children's  courts  that  deal 
with  wrongdoing  by  children.  We  also  have  probate  or 
surrogate  courts  that  settle  the  affairs  of  people  who  have 
died. 

Trial  by  Jury. — According  to  both  custom  and  law, 
anyone  accused  of  serious  offenses  has  the  right  to  be  tried 
by  a  jury.  A  jury  is  a  group  of  persons,  usually  twelve  in 
number,  who  decide  whether  or  not  the  prisoner's  guilt  is 


THE  JUDICIAL  POWER  OF  THE  STATE  123 

proved.  Each  prisoner  is  entitled  to  appear  in  court  before 
the  judge  and  the  jury,  to  tell  his  side  of  the  case,  to  pro- 
duce witnesses  in  his  defense,  to  hear  the  witnesses  against 
him,  and  to  have  the  advice  and  help  of  a  lawyer.  The  case 
against  the  prisoner  is  conducted  by  an  officer  known  as  a 


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The  lesson  on  the  blackboard  shows  that  these  prisoners  cannot 
read  and  write.  An  education  might  have  helped  to  keep  them  out 
of  jail;  and  it  is  hoped  that  they  may  learn  enough  here  so  that  after 
their  release  they  will  earn  their  living  in  honest  ways. 


prosecuting  attorney.  He  explains  to  the  jury  the  reasons 
why  the  prisoner  has  been  brought  to  trial,  and  calls  wit- 
nesses to  give  evidence  against  him.  Of  course,  the  prison- 
er's lawyer  tries  by  means  of  argument  and  witnesses  to 
prove  the  man's  innocence. 

After  both  sides  have  completed  their  evidence  and  argu- 
ments, the  judge  explains  to  the  jury  what  points  they 
should  consider  in  making  their  decision,  and  tells  them 


124  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

about  the  law  in  regard  to  the  case  before  them.  The 
jury  are  then  taken  to  a  private  room,  where  they  decide 
upon  their  verdict.  If  it  is  "guilty,"  the  judge  pronounces 
sentence;  that  is,  tells  the  prisoner  what  his  punishment  is 
to  be. 

The  Legal  Penalty  for  Crime. — In  giving  sentence,  the 
judge  is  always  guided  by  law.  For  example,  the  law  may 
say  that  a  certain  minor  offense  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of 
not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars;  or  that  a  greater  crime  shall  be  punished  by 
imprisonment  of  not  less  than  two  years  nor  more  than  five 
years.  The  judge  cannot  give  sentences  outside  these 
limits.  If  the  prisoner  has  never  committed  a  crime  before, 
the  judge  will  probably  give  the  lightest  sentence  permitted 
by  law;  if  the  prisoner  is  an  old  offender,  the  judge  will 
probably  give  the  heaviest  legal  penalty;  but  it  is  the  law, 
rather  than  the  judge's  own  feelings,  by  which  he  is  guided. 
This  is  much  better  than  permitting  the  judge  to  impose 
any  penalty  of  which  he  might  happen  to  think,  as  it  pre- 
vents easy-going  judges  from  allowing  criminals  to  go  almost 
unpunished,  while  at  the  same  time  it  prevents  those  of 
severe  nature  from  imposing  unfairly  heavy  penalties. 

Some  civil  cases — that  is,  disputes  about  property  or 
money — are  also  tried  before  a  jury;  but  very  minor  cases, 
both  civil  and  criminal,  are  tried  by  the  judge  alone. 

The  County  Jail  and  the  State  Prison. — When  it  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  imprison  a  person  as  a  penalty  for  crime, 
he  is  sent  to  either  a  county  jail  or  a  state  prison,  according 
to  the  nature  of  his  offense  and  the  length  of  his  imprison- 
ment. 

The  county  jail  is  managed  by  local  authorities,  but  it 
is  really  a  part  of  the  state  system  of  penal  institutions;  for, 


THE  JUDICIAL  POWER  OF  THE  STATE  125 

as  we  have  already  learned,  the  county  is  in  many  respects 
acting  for  the  state.  As  persons  are  sent  to  county  jails  for 
short  terms,  not  much  attempt  is  made  to  educate  or  train 
the  prisoners  in  these  institutions.  In  most  state  prisons, 
however,  where  the  inmates  are  serving  long  terms,  edu- 
cational work  is  undertaken.  The  idea  is  spreading  rapidly 
that  it  will  benefit  not  only  the  inmates  of  the  prisons,  but 
society  in  general,  to  place  each  prisoner  in  a  position  to 
earn  an  honest  living  when  he  is  discharged.  In  many  state 
prisons,  classes  are  held  for  the  benefit  of  those  whose  educa- 
tion has  been  neglected,  useful  trades  are  taught,  and  every 
encouragement  is  given  the  prisoners  to  resolve  upon  leading 
honest  lives  after  their  release.  Much  has  already  been  done 
in  this  direction,  and  more  is  being  accomplished  every  year. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Whj^  is  it  necessary  that  criminal;?  shall  be  punished? 

2.  What  is  the  difference  between  punishment  and  revenge? 

3.  Why  is  the  punishment  of  wrongdoers  more  likely  to  be  just 
when  administered  by  public  officials  than  when  left  to  pri\ate 
individuals?     What  do  you  mean  by  just  punishment? 

4.  Why  do  the  states,  rather  than  cities  or  the  federal  govern- 
ment, punish  most  persons  guilty  of  serious  crimes? 

5.  What  is  a  court?    What  is  a  trial? 

6.  Why  should  a  person  accused  of  wrongdoing  be  given  a  trial? 

7.  W^hy  is  a  person  tried  even  if  he  confesses  that  he  has  com- 
mitted the  crime  of  which  he  is  accused? 

8.  Why  are  several  courts  of  various  grades  needed? 

9.  Why  should  persons  sometimes  be  permitted  to  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  one  court  to  a  higher  court? 

10.  What  is  a  jury?  Why  are  most  important  cases  tried  with 
the  help  of  a  jury,  instead  of  being  left  to  the  judge  alone? 

11.  Why  are  most  up-to-date  prisons  introducing  educational 
work?  What  should  be  the  objects  of  sending  a  man  to  prison? 
What  kind  of  treatment  is  most  likely  to  help  a  criminal  to  reform? 


CHAPTER   XXIV 
THE  LEGISLATIVE  POWER  OF  THE  STATE 

The  Lawmaking  Body. — In  every  governmental  organ- 
ization there  must  be  some  person  or  persons  with  authority 
to  make  the  rules  and  regulations,  or  laws.  In  all  the  state 
governments  in  the  United  States  the  bodies,  or  groups  of 
people,  that  do  this  work  are  called  legislatures.  The  legis- 
lature in  each  state  is  chosen  by  the  people  and  given  the 
power  and  right  to  make  all  rules  and  regulations  for  the 
state.  This  authority  is  called  the  legislative  power. 
The  laws  made  by  a  state  legislature  must  not  conflict  with 
the  national  Constitution,  with  federal  laws  and  treaties,  or 
with  the  state  constitution.  Except  for  these  limitations, 
the  legislature  can  make  all  the  laws  that  are  necessary  for 
the  health,  safety,  protection,  and  welfare  of  the  people 
of  the  state. 

The  Two  Houses  of  the  Legislature. — In  every  state  of 
the  Union  the  legislature  is  composed  of  two  branches.  One 
of  these,  known  as  the  lower  house,  is  usually  called  the 
house  of  representatives,  or  the  assembly;  while  the  other, 
or  the  upper  house,  is  usually  called  the  senate.  As  a  rule 
the  lower  house  is  much  larger  than  the  upper,  consisting 
of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  members;  while  the 
upper  house  consists  of  only  about  thirty  to  fifty  members. 
Ordinarily  the  members  of  the  lower  house  are  about  three 
times  as  numerous  as  those  of  the  upper  house.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  lower  house  are  elected  from  smaller  districts 

126 


THE  LEGISLATIVE  POWER  OF  THE  STATE       127 

than  the  members  of  the  upper  house.  The  result  is  that 
usually  the  upper  house  is  composed  of  persons  of  more 
abihty  than  the  lower  house;  for  as  a  rule  the  larger  the 
district  from  which  a  man  is  chosen,  the  better  will  be  the 
man,  as  the  voters  have  a  wider  choice.  In  many  states, 
also,  the  senators  have  longer  terms  than  the  representatives. 
It  is  these  differences  that  make  the  upper  house  generally 
more  powerful  than  the  lower  house. 

Reasons  for  a  Two-House  Legislature. — If  we  should  ask 
the  reason  for  having  two  houses  of  the  legislature  instead 
of  one,  the  reply  would  be  that  it  is  largely  historical.  When 
the  state  constitutions  were  adopted,  many  men  believed 
that  if  there  were  only  one  house,  the  great  majoritj^  of  the 
people,  being  without  property  or  land,  would  elect  rep- 
resentatives who  might  injure  the  property  rights  of  the 
wealthy.  They  wished,  therefore,  to  have  an  upper  house 
composed  chiefly  of  large  property  owners,  in  order  to  keep 
the  multitude  of  the  common  people  from  exercising  too 
much  power.  In  this  way  the  lower  house  would  represent 
the  majority  of  the  people,  while  the  upper  house  would 
represent  the  minority.  Many  also  believed  that  if  only 
representatives  from  the  common  people  were  elected  to 
office,  they  would  pass  much  legislation  that  was  hasty  and 
not  well  considered;  while  if  all  laws  had  to  be  passed  by 
two  houses,  they  would  be  thoroughly'  discussed  and  care- 
fully framed. 

Many  people  today  believe  that,  since  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  representatives  of  the  people  do  not  violate  the 
rights  of  the  wealth}^,  and  since  having  two  houses  causes 
slowness  and  lack  of  responsibility  for  the  making  of  good 
laws,  it  is  best  to  have  a  one-house  legislature.  However, 
no  state  has  as  yet  established  such  a  legislature. 


128  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Election  of  Representatives. — The  members  of  both 
houses  of  the  legislature  are  chosen  by  the  people.  In 
most  states  one  or  more  members  of  the  lower  house  are 
elected  by  the  people  of  each  county.  In  many  states 
the  members  of  the  upper  house,  or  the  senate,  are  chosen 
from  larger  districts,  usually  composed  of  several  counties. 
In  all  cases  the  people  vote  directly  for  those  who  represent 
them.  Whether  or  not  we  have  good  government  in  our 
states,  therefore,  depends  to  a  large  degree  upon  the  in- 
telligence of  the  people  in  choosing  these  representatives. 
If  the  people  are  able  to  choose  good,  honest,  and  capable 
men,  the  affairs  of  the  states  will  be  carried  out  in  the  right 
way.  If  they  choose  bad  men  or  men  without  ability,  the 
work  of  the  state  government,  which  we  must  always 
remember  is  a  part  of  our  own  work,  will  suffer.  It  is  the 
duty  of  each  citizen,  before  he  votes,  to  look  up  the  record 
of  each  candidate  who  is  running  for  the  legislature  in 
order  to  find  out  who  is  most  likely  to  serve  the  people  well. 

The  Presiding  Officer. — Just  as  it  is  impossible  for  a 
roomful  of  people  to  make  plans  when  all  are  talking  at 
once,  so  likewise  it  is  impossible  for  the  legislature.  Every 
legislature,  therefore,  has  its  own  rules  and  regulations, 
telhng  how  it  shall  carry  on  business.  In  order  that  every- 
one shall  not  talk  at  once,  and  that  order  may  be  preserved, 
each  house  of  the  legislature  has  a  presiding  officer.  This 
officer  is  usually  called  the  speaker.  The  speaker  has  a 
good  deal  of  power,  as  he  has  the  right  to  recognize  a  member 
who  desires  to  speak;  that  is,  to  allow  him  to  address  the 
house.  He  a,lso  has  considerable  power  in  appointing  com- 
mittees. 

Standing  Committees. — Besides  having  rules  stating 
who  shall  speak  and  how  he  shall  speak,  it  is  also  necessary 


THE  LEGISLATHE  POWER  OF  THE  STATE       129 

to  divide  the  work  that  such  a  large  body  must  do.  The 
members  of  the  legislature  must  plan  for  the  collection  of 
money;  they  must  plan  for  expending  money;  they  must 
plan  for  the  making  of  laws  on  very  many  subjects.  It  is 
almost  impossible  for  every  member  to  make  a  deep  and 
careful  study  of  every  problem  that  comes  before  the 
legislature,  as  some  of  the  more  important  problems  demand 
weeks  of  investigation.  Therefore  it  is  customary  to  appoint 
standing  committees,  each  of  which  is  to  study  certain 
problems  and  report  to  the  entire  house  the  results  of  its 
investigation.  The  recommendations  of  the  committee  are 
usually  considered  and  discussed  by  the  legislature  before 
the  final  vote  is  taken. 

The  Initiative. — About  half  the  states  in  our  Union  pro- 
vide some  means  of  permitting  the  people  to  take  a  direct 
part  in  lawmaking,  instead  of  leaving  this  function  entirely 
to  the  legislature.  In  some  states  the  people  have  the  power 
known  as  the  initiative;  that  is,  the  right  to  begin  lawmak- 
ing, by  obtaining  a  certain  numl)er  of  signatures  to  a  pro- 
posed law  or  constitutional  amendment.  When  the  requi- 
site signatures  are  obtained,  the  legislature  must  vote 
upon  the  measure,  or  the  people  must  be  given  the  oppor- 
tunity to  vote  upon  it  at  an  election,  according  to  the  laws 
of  the  particular  state. 

The  Referendum. — The  referendum  is  the  right  enjo3'ed 
by  the  people  in  some  states  to  have  bills,  or  proposed  laws, 
referred  to  them  for  approval,  after  being  passed  by  the 
legislature.  The  exact  circumstances  under  which  this  is 
done  vary  from  state  to  state.  In  most  states  where  the 
referendum  exists,  if  a  certain  number  of  voters  sign  a 
petition  asking  that  the  people  be  given  an  opportunity  to 
vote  upon  a  measure  before  it  actually  becomes  law,  an 


130  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

election  must  be  held;  and  if  the  measure  is  defeated  in  this 
election,  it  fails  to  become  law. 

The  initiative  thus  gives  the  people  an  opportunity  to 
secure  desirable  laws,  and  the  referendum  enables  them  to 
protect  themselves  from  undesirable  ones.  As  we  have 
already  learned,  the  referendum  is  found  in  practically  every 
state  in  regard  to  constitutional  amendments  and  unusual 
expenditures,  but  it  is  not  so  widespread  in  regard  to  ordi- 
nary legislation. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  legislative  power?  Why  is  it  essential  that  all  divi- 
sions of  government  shall  possess  this  power?    What  is  a  legislature? 

2.  What  are  the  exact  titles  of  the  upper  and  the  lower  houses 
of  your  state  legislature?  How  many  members  are  elected  to  each 
house?  Name  the  members  of  these  houses  who  represent  the  part 
of  the  state  where  you  live. 

3.  Explain  why  the  two-house  legislature  is  common  in  the 
United  States. 

4.  When  did  j-our  state  legislature  hold  its  latest  session?  Name 
some  important  measures  passed  by  it.  Was  there  general  satis- 
faction with  its  work?  If  not,  who  are  to  blame?  Explain  your 
answer. 

5.  Why  is  a  great  deal  of  the  work  of  legislatures  done  by  com- 
mittees? Why  is  not  every  measure  hiWy  discussed  by  the  entire 
legislature? 

6.  What  are  the  powers  of  the  speaker?  What  principles  should 
guide  him  in  appointing  committees? 

7.  Explain  initiative  and  referendum.  What  is  the  value  of 
each?    Could  either  of  these  rights  be  misused?    Explain. 


CHAPTER   XXV 
THE  EXECUTIVE  POWER  OF  THE  STATE 

Enforcing  the  Laws. — Laws  would  be  of  little  use  unless 
there  were  some  person  or  body  of  persons  to  enforce  them. 
For  instance,  there  would  be  no  use  in  making;  a  law  that 
the  schools  should  be  in  session  eight  months  in  the  year, 
unless  somebody  were  made  responsible  for  carrying  on  the 
schools.  Those  people  in  any  government  who  carry  out 
the  laws  are  called  executives.  Most  of  the  state  constitu- 
tions provide  that  the  governor  of  the  state  shall  be  the 
chief  executive;  that  is,  the  one  to  whom  the  people  must 
look  to  see  that  the  laws  of  the  state  are  carried  out.  Work- 
ing with  him,  there  are  several  other  state  officials  who  help 
him  enforce  the  laws. 

Qualifications  of  the  Governor. — In  each  state  in  the 
Union  we  have  a  governor,  who  is  always  elected  by  the 
people.  He  is  considered  responsible  for  the  enforcing  of 
the  laws  of  the  state.  Many  states  prescribe  certain  quali- 
fications for  this  office,  among  which  are  citizenship  in  the 
state,  sometimes  a  certain  length  of  residence  in  the  state, 
and  often  a  requirement  as  to  age.  Except  in  a  very  few 
states,  there  are  no  property  qualifications. 

The  Governor's  Influence  on  Legislation.— The  governor 
has  a  considerable  amount  of  power,  as  a  rule.  Though  he 
has  no  direct  influence  in  the  making  of  laws,  his  indirect  in- 
fluence is  large.  Often  he  is  the  leader  of  his  political  party 
in  the  state,  and  so  the  members  of  the  legislature  more  or 
less  follow  him.    He  has  a  right  to  make  recommendations 

131 


132  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

to  the  legislature,  and  these  are  likely  to  be  adopted  by  the 
party  leaders  in  the  legislature  and  made  into  laws. 

In  all  the  states  except  one,  the  governor  has  the  power  of 
vetoing  laws;  that  is,  he  has  the  power  to  withhold  his 
consent  to  any  bill  that  the  legislature  may  pass.  In  case 
he  does  this,  the  bill  does  not  become  law  unless  passed 
again  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses.  Because  the 
governor  has  this  power,  he  may  keep  bills  from  being  con- 
sidered, or  from  being  passed,  by  a  threat  to  veto  them. 

The  governor  also  has  power,  under  certain  circumstances, 
to  call  a  special  session  of  the  legislature  to  consider  meas- 
ures that  he  deems  important.  As  the  measures  are  thus 
forced  on  the  attention  of  the  members  of  the  legislature 
and  they  can  consider  no  others  at  a  special  session,  the 
governor  is  often  able  to  secure  legislation  in  this  way. 

Thus,  we  see  that  a  good  deal  of  power  in  planning  the 
work  of  the  state  and  its  laws  is  in  the  hands  of  the  governor. 
Since  he  is  elected  by  the  people  of  all  the  state  instead  of 
only  a  small  district,  they  naturally  look  to  him  as  the  one 
to  determine,  to  a  large  extent,  the  plans  of  the  state. 

The  Power  of  Appointment. — The  governor's  power  of 
appointment  gives  him  great  influence.  He  has  many 
boards,  commissions,  and  officers  to  appoint.  In  many 
states  he  appoints  the  members  of  the  board  of  health,  the 
board  of  agriculture,  the  board  of  parole,  the  prison  com- 
mission, and  various  other  officers.  The  power  of  appoint- 
ment and  removal  of  officers  gives  him  a  certain  control  over 
the  administration  of  these  departments,  for  an  officer  is 
likely  to  consider  the  wishes  of  the  person  who  appoints 
him  and  can  remove  him. 

The  Governor's  Military  Power. — The  governor  in  every 
state  is  the  commander  in  chief  of  the  state  militia,  except 


THE  EXECUTIVE  POWER  OF  THE  STATE          133 

in  time  of  actual  war;  and  as  such,  he  has  large  powers  in 
putting  down  riots,  insurrections,  and  disturbances.  In 
case  of  war  or  insurrection  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  case  military  power  is  needed  to  enforce 
its  laws,  Congress  may  call  state  militia  to  the  aid  of  the 
federal  government.  (Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
Article  I,  Section  8,  paragraph  15.)  This  was  done  in  1916, 
when  troops  were  sent  to  the  Mexican  border. 

The  Pardoning  Power. — To  the  governor  belongs  the 
rather  important  power  of  pardoning  those  who  have  been 
convicted  of  crime,  if  in  his  opinion  there  is  some  good  reason 
for  giving  them  lenient  treatment. 

Other  Executive  Officers. — The  governor,  of  course, 
is  not  the  only  state  executive  officer.  There  are  many 
chairmen  of  boards  and  commissions,  and  numerous  other 
executive  and  administrative  officers,  such  as  the  secretary 
of  state,  the  attorney  general,  the  state  treasurer,  and  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  each  of  whom 
is  placed  in  charge  of  certain  branches  of  the  state's  work. 
It  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  consider  the  duties  of  these 
officers,  as  we  have  already  learned  something  of  the  work 
done  by  their  departments. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  an  executive?  What  is  executive  power?  Who 
is  the  chief  executive  of  each  of  our  states? 

2.  Explain  how  the  governor  can  influence  tlie  making  of  laws, 
even  though  he  has  no  direct  legislative  power.  What  is  meant 
by  a  veto?  How  does  the  governor's  veto  power  help  him  in  in- 
fluencing legislation? 

3.  Why  do  most  states  give  the  governor  power  to  appoint  the 
heads  of  executive  boards? 

4.  Under  what  conditions  may  a  governor  call  out  the  state 
militia?    When  does  it  pass  out  of  his  command? 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
STATE   FINANCES 

Sources  of  State  Revenue. — We  have  seen  in  former 
chapters  that  the  state  carries  out  a  great  many  activities. 
Each  of  these  activities  evidently  requires  the  expenditure 
of  money.  Where  do  the  states  get  the  money  to  do  all  this 
work?  If  we  examined  the  financial  systems  of  all  the 
states,  we  should  see  that  there  are  many  different  sources 
from  which  money  may  be  obtained.  A  state  like  New 
York,  for  instance,  may  raise  large  sums  by  charging  a  small 
amount  on  each  sale  of  stock.  A  state  like  Oklahoma,  which 
has  vast  stores  of  oil,  zinc,  and  other  metals,  may  levy  a 
small  tax  on  each  dollar's  worth  of  oil  or  zinc  produced. 
But  most  of  the  states  have  the  same  sources,  though  they 
have  some  special  ways  of  collecting  revenue;  that  is, 
raising  money  toward  the  expenses  of  government. 

Property  Tax. — By  far  the  largest  amount  of  state 
revenue  is  derived  from  the  general  property  tax.  This 
tax  usually  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  cents  or  mills 
on  the  dollar  to  be  paid  for  each  dollar's  worth  of  property 
in  the  state.  Thus,  if  a  man  has  ten  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  land,  buildings,  horses,  cows,  and  furniture,  and 
the  state  tax  is  one  cent  on  every  dollar  of  valuation,  he 
would  pay  one  hundred  dollars  in  taxes  to  the  state. 

Often  the  state  exempts  a  certain  amount  of  property 
from  taxation;  as  a  rule,  about  three  hundred  dollars' 
worth.     We  generally  consider  that  persons  who  have  less 

134 


STATE  FINANCES  135 

than  this  amount  of  property  are  hardly  able  to  pay  taxes. 
Certain  charitable,  educational,  and  religious  institutions 
are  often  excused  from  paying  the  general  property  tax. 

Income  Tax. — A  number  of  states  obtain  a  part  of  their 
revenues  by  taxing  the  incomes  of  their  citizens.  Ex- 
emptions are  always  made,  so  that  the  tax  is  borne  by  those 
best  able  to  pay. 

Inheritance  Tax. — Another  source  of  revenue  that  is 
being  used  by  some  states  is  the  inheritance  tax.  This  is  a 
tax  levied  upon  property  that  passes  to  others  after  the 
death  of  the  person  owning  it.  In  some  cases,  if  the  amount 
transferred  is  small,  the  tax  is  very  light,  but  it  rises  as  the 
amount  of  the  property  transferred  increases.  The  law 
may  provide,  for  instance,  that  no  tax  at  all  shall  be  levied 
upon  an  inheritance  of  less  than  five  thousand  dollars, 
which  goes  to  a  near  relative.  On  larger  amounts  a  tax  of 
one,  two,  three,  or  four  per  cent  may  be  levied,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  inheritance  and  the  relationship  of  the 
heir  to  the  person  who  has  left  the  estate. 

Taxes  on  Corporations. — Many  states  secure  revenue 
from  corporations.  Some  of  them  charge  all  companies 
organized  in  the  state  an  organization  tax,  or  a  tax  upon 
the  right  to  do  business  as  a  corporation.  Some  states 
charge  corporations  organized  in  other  states  a  license  tax 
for  the  privilege  of  doing  business  within  their  borders. 
There  is  also,  in  some  states,  a  tax  on  the  right  that  is  given  a 
corporation  to  use  streets  and  public  highways. 

Poll  Tax. — In  several  states  the  government  receives 
some  revenue  from  the  poll  tax,  which  is  a  small  tax,  usu- 
ally a  dollar  or  so,  upon  each  individual  or  each  male  in- 
habitant in  the  state  between  certain  ages. 

Income  from  Property  and  Service. — Nearly  all  states 


136  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

receive  some  income  from  public  property,  such  as  the  sale 
or  renting  of  lands,  or  the  collection  of  tolls  for  the  use  of 
canals,  and  from  charges  for  services  furnished  by  the  state. 

Income  from  Fines  and  License  Fees. — All  states  obtain 
money  from  fines  and  penalties  of  various  sorts.  Many 
receive  considerable  revenue  from  charging  license  fees  for 
the  use  of  automobiles,  for  permission  to  hunt  game,  and 
for  other  privileges. 

Restrictions  on  Expenditures. — The  state  legislature  is 
the  body  charged  with  planning  how  the  state's  money  shall 
be  spent.  Nearly  all  states  provide  some  restrictions  upon 
the  amount  of  money  that  the  legislature  may  appropriate. 
Many  of  them  also  require  a  vote  of  the  people  for  large 
expenditures  of  money,  such  as  are  needed  for  the  building 
of  highways  and  canals. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Since  the  work  of  the  state  is  carried  on  for  the  public  wel- 
fare, who  should  pay  for  this  work? 

2.  How  does  the  state  obtain  money  to  pay  its  expenses?  Why 
does  it  exempt  certain  persons  and  institutions  from  taxation? 

3.  Name  the  principal  kinds  of  taxes  levied  by  the  state. 

4.  Secure  the  latest  report  of  your  state  treasurer,  and  see  if 
you  can  discover  sources  of  revenue  which  have  not  been  discussed 
in  the  text.  Which  of  these  might  be  used  in  every  state?  Which 
of  them  depend  on  certain  local  conditions? 

5.  Why  do  most  state  constitutions  limit  the  authority  of  the 
legislature  to  expend  money? 

6.  Why  is  it  customary  to  call  for  a  popular  vote  when  large 
sums  are  to  be  expended? 


THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 

CHAPTER   XXVII 

THE      DEVELOPMENT      OF      THE      NATIONAL 
GOVERNMENT 

Why  a  National  Government  Is  Needed. — We  saw  in 
Chapter  III  that  city  governments  are  not  large  enough 
units  to  carry  out  some  important  kinds  of  work  that  we 
must  do  collectively,  such  as  building  and  repairing  high- 
ways, furnishing  protection  to  the  citizens  traveling  over 
the  state,  and  giving  justice  to  all  citizens.  If  we  think  a 
moment,  we  can  easily  see  that  even  the  state  government 
is  not  a  large  enough  unit  to  look  after  all  our  interests.  Let 
us  consider  why  this  is  so. 

Suppose  you  were  an  orange  grower  in  California  and 
wished  to  ship  oranges  to  Chicago  or  New  York.  If  each 
state  had  a  right  to  charge  you  for  letting  the  oranges  pass 
through  its  territory — as  it  would  have,  if  the  states  were 
not  united  into  a  nation — you  can  easily  see  that  by  the 
time  you  had  paid  all  these  charges  you  would  have  to  ask 
such  a  high  price  for  your  oranges  that  no  one  would  wish  to 
purchase  them.  Or  suppose  that  a  railway  company  wished 
to  build  a  line  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  and  found 
that  two  or  three  of  the  states,  which  the  line  must  cross, 
would  not  let  the  railroad  go  through  their  territory.  You 
can  readily  see  what  difficulty  might  be  experienced. 

National  Control  of  Commerce. — Let  us  imagine  again 
that  we  had  no  national  government  and  that  each  state 

137 


138  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

could  do  as  it  pleased  in  every  way.  Texas  might  charge 
citizens  of  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  and  Colorado  such  high 
tariffs  on  all  wheat  or  oil  shipped  from  the  port  of  Galveston 
to  Europe  that  it  would  not  be  profitable  to  raise  wheat  or 
to  produce  oil.  Probably  if  Texas  tried  to  do  this,  the  other 
three  states  would  unite,  form  an  army,  and  try  to  secure 
a  port  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  order  to  be  free  from  paying 
this  tariff.  We  can  see  that  if  the  complete  control  of  com- 
merce were  left  to  state  governments,  they  would  continu- 
ally be  fighting  one  another.  As  it  is,  however,  the  national 
government  guarantees  that  all  goods  may  be  shipped  be- 
tween states  without  any  duty  or  charge  whatsoever.  The 
result  is  that  one  of  the  main  causes  of  warfare  between  the 
states  is  removed. 

National  Protection  against  Enemies. — If  we  had  forty- 
eight  states  all  jealous  of  one  another  and  quarrehng  with 
one  another,  we  can  see  how  easily  any  one  state  might  be 
defeated  by  a  European  nation  or  any  other  nation.  If 
Texas  had  to  depend  entirely  on  herself  for  protection 
against  Mexico  and  also  had  hostile  states  on  her  north, 
she  would  continually  be  fearing  for  her  safety.  As  it  is  now, 
with  all  the  states  working  together  for  their  protection 
through  the  national  government,  it  would  be  almost  im- 
possible for  any  nation  to  defeat  us. 

From  these  few  illustrations  it  is  evident  that  we  need 
a  national  government. 

The  First  Union  of  the  States. — As  all  of  us  know  who 
have  studied  history,  the  first  union  of  the  states  took  place 
in  1777,  when  the  Continental  Congress  adopted  the  "Ar- 
ticles of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union."  By  this 
step  the  thirteen  colonies  entered  into  a  rather  loose  union 
or  confederation. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT    139 

Financial  Weakness. — This  confederation  soon  proved 
too  weak  to  do  the  things  that  the  people  considered  a 
national  government  should  do.  One  reason  for  its  weak- 
ness was  the  fact  that  Congress  had  to  depend  on  the 
states  for  money  instead  of  collecting  it  in  the  form  of  taxes 
from  individuals.  As  the  states  were  careless  and  slow  in 
making  payment,  and  Congress  had  no  way  of  forcing  them 
to  do  better,  the  national  government  soon  found  that  it 
was  unable  to  pay  its  debts  or  carry  on  its  work;  for  a 
government,  like  a  person,  cannot  work  without  money. 

Commercial  Rivalry. — There  was  also  much  commercial 
rivalry  among  the  states.  Each  state  was  trying  to  levy 
high  tariffs  or  importation  duties  on  the  goods  of  every  other 
state.  This  resulted  in  much  bad  feeling  between  the  states, 
and  there  was  even  danger  that  they  might  go  to  war  with 
one  another  for  these  reasons.  Since  the  national  govern- 
ment did  not  have  sufficient  control  over  commerce,  it  could 
not  remedy  this  bad  situation. 

Weakness  in  Foreign  Relations.— The  foreign  commerce 
of  the  states  was  equally  bad.  England  and  other  European 
countries  did  not  respect  the  states  or  believe  in  their  power, 
and  so  levied  high  tariffs  against  them.  Because  the  states 
were  weak  and  were  quarreling  among  themselves,  they 
could  not  retaliate. 

Weakness  in  Defense. — The  nation  was  also  unable  to 
protect  itself  from  danger  from  foreign  aggression.  It 
could  not  collect  enough  money  to  prepare  for  defense,  and 
it  had  to  depend  on  jealous  states  for  its  supply  of  troops. 
It  had  no  power  itself,  such  as  the  national  government  has 
today,  to  say  to  each  man,  "You  are  needed  in  the  army." 
Before  it  could  get  any  men,  it  had  to  secure  the  consent  of 
the  states. 


140  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

The  Constitutional  Convention. — These  and  other  reasons 
made  the  patriotic  and  thoughtful  men  of  the  country  de- 
termine to  amend  and  change  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
in  such  a  way  that  the  national  government  would  have 
more  power. 

Several  times  the  question  of  making  such  changes  was 
suggested.  Finally  at  a  convention  at  Annapohs  in  1786, 
called  to  make  an  agreement  regarding  the  navigation  of 
the  Potomac,  Alexander  Hamilton  of  New  York  suggested 
that  all  the  states  send  representatives  to  a  convention  to 
be  held  in  Philadelphia  for  the  purpose  of  giving  more  power 
to  the  national  government.  All  the  states  except  Rhode 
Island  responded  to  this  call  and  sent  delegates.  Among 
these  delegates  were  many  of  the  famous  men  of  the  country, 
including  George  Washington,  Benjamin  Franklin,  Robert 
Morris,  Edmund  Randolph,  and  Alexander  Hamilton. 
Many  of  them  had  had  training  in  government  and  prac- 
tical administration.  Several,  in  fact,  had  been  governors 
of  their  own  states  or  had  taken  some  other  part  in  public 
life.  It  is  rather  interesting  to  note  that  although  a  college 
education  was  a  rare  thing  in  those  days,  more  than  one 
half  the  members  of  the  convention  were  college  graduates. 

Adoption  of  the  Constitution. — After  holding  sessions 
from  May  to  September,  this  convention  completed  a  Con- 
stitution, which  was  submitted  to  the  states  for  ratification. 
It  was  provided  by  the  convention  that  as  soon  as  nine  of 
the  states  had  ratified  the  Constitution  it  should  go  into 
effect.  The  required  number  of  states  had  ratified  it  by 
the  midsummer  of  1788,  and  the  other  four  states  gave  their 
consent  later.  By  this  Constitution  powers  were  given  to 
the  national  government  which  remedied  the  weaknesses  of 
the  Articles  of  Confederation. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT     141 

The  Growing  Power  of  the  National  Government. — When 
the  government  of  the  United  States  under  the  Constitution 
was  first  estabhshed,  there  were  many  who  believed  that  it 
would  not  be  a  success.  Many  more  believed  that  the  state 
governments  would  continue  to  be  stronger  than  the  na- 
tional government.  Neither  of  these  predictions,  however, 
has  proved  true,  for  during  every  year  from  its  beginning 
until  the  present  time  the  power  of  the  national  govern- 
ment has  been  steadily  growing. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Of  what  value  is  our  national  government  in  keeping  peace 
among  the  states? 

2.  What  is  its  value  in  protecting  us  from  foreign  enemies? 

3.  How  does  the  national  government  help  to  make  travel  and 
commerce  easy  and  safe? 

4.  What  were  the  Articles  of  Confederation?  What  were  the 
chief  defects  and  weaknesses  of  these  Articles?  What  were  the 
relations  of  the  states  to  one  another  at  this  time? 

5.  Describe  the  convention  at  which  our  present  federal  Con- 
stitution was  adopted.  Wliat  kind  of  men  composed  this  con- 
vention? 

6.  What  was  the  chief  difference  between  the  new  Constitution 
and  the  old  Articles  of  Confederation? 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
WHAT    THE    NATIONAL    GOVERNMENT    DOES 

National  Welfare. — The  national  government  carries 
out  so  many  different  kinds  of  work  that  it  is  impossible 
in  this  book  to  describe  any  but  the  most  important.  We 
shall  see,  in  examining  our  national  government,  that  it 
works  for  the  welfare  of  the  citizens  at  large,  instead  of  for 
those  in  only  a  small  community. 

Foreign  Relations  and  Commerce. — In  the  first  place,  the 
national  government  rather  than  the  state  government  has 
complete  control  over  all  dealings  of  the  United  States  with 
other  countries.  It  is  the  national  government  that  declares 
war  and  makes  peace  with  other  nations.  Only  the  national 
government  has  the  right  to  maintain  an  army  and  a  navy. 

All  regulation  of  foreign  commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
national  government.  If  certain  goods  are  not  allowed  to 
come  in  from  a  foreign  country,  it  is  the  national  govern- 
ment that  acts  in  this  matter  rather  than  the  state  govern- 
ments. Also,  if  it  is  decided  to  make  a  charge  for  letting 
goods  come  in  from  a  foreign  country,  the  regulation  of  this 
charge  is  left  to  the  national  government. 

Coining  Money. — The  national  government  is  given 
control  over  all  currency  used  in  the  country.  It  alone 
has  the  right  to  coin  money. 

Interstate  Commerce. — All  commerce  between  the  states 
is  regulated  by  the  national  government.  It  is  therefore 
the  national  government,  and  not  the  state,  which  regulates 
the  rates  the  railways  shall  charge  between  two  cities  in 
different  states. 

142 


WHAT  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT  DOES    143 

Immigration  and  Naturalization. — The  national  govern- 
ment determines  what  people  may  come  into  the  United 
States  from  foreign  countries,  and  what  people  cannot  come. 


The  Mint  at  Philadelphia.  Here  gold,  silver,  and  nickel  are  made  into 
coins  and  stamped  with  the  designs  that  distinguish  the  coins  of  the 
United  States. 

It  also  says  who  may  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 

Postal  Service. — The  post  offices  and  post  roads  are 
under  the  control  of  the  national  government.  In  con- 
nection with  the  Post  Office  Department,  it  conducts  the 
parcel  post  system  and  the  postal  savings  bank. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  important  services 
which  the  government  of  the  United  States  performs  for 
its  citizens.  In  the  following  chapters  we  shall  examine 
some  of  them  in  more  detail. 


FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  the  principal  difference  between  the  work   of  the 
national  government  and  the  work  of  a  state  or  a  city  government? 

2,  Name  some  of  the  powers  of  the  national  government.    Why 
has  each  of  these  powers  been  given  to  it,  rather  than  to  the  states? 


CHAPTER   XXIX 
PUBLIC   DEFENSE 

National  Control  of  Army  and  Navy. — It  is  easy  for  us 
to  see  why  public  defense  should  be  a  national  function 
rather  than  a  function  carried  out  by  the  states.  It  is  much 
less  expensive  to  have  one  large  army  than  to  have  forty- 
eight  armies,  one  in  each  state.  It  is  much  more  efficient 
to  have  the  whole  army  under  one  command  rather  than 
under  many  commands.  This  was  shown  in  the  World 
War,  when  the  command  of  all  the  allied  armies  was  in- 
trusted to  General  Foch.  If  the  states  are  not  allowed  to 
keep  armies,  there  is  much  less  danger  that  they  will  fight 
among  themselves. 

The  same  reasons  and  others  might  be  given  for  letting 
the  national  government  alone  control  the  navy. 

Military  Powers  of  Congress. — The  lawmaking  body  of 
the  United  States,  the  Congress,  is  given  not  only  the  very 
important  power  of  declaring  war,  but  also  the  power  of 
raising  and  supporting  armies.  This  power  is  without  any 
limitation,  except  that  Congress  shall  make  no  appropria- 
tions of  money  for  this  purpose  for  a  longer  term  than  two 
years. 

The  Regular  Army. — It  has  never  been  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  to  maintain  a  large  standing  army,  after  the 
example  of  many  European  nations.  She  has  relied,  in 
case  of  emergency,  upon  the  militia  of  the  several  states 
and  upon  volunteers;  and  in  case  of  prolonged  war  she  has 
drafted  men  into  service. 

144 


PUBLIC  DEFENSE  145 

The  regular  army  has  always  been  recruited  by  volunteers 
and  has  always  been  rather  small.  In  Washington's  term 
of  office  as  President  it  contained  only  about  5000  men. 
During  the  Civil  War,  Congress  authorized  the  increase  of 
the  standing  army  to  35,000  men,  and  during  the  Spanish- 
American  War  it  was  increased  to  65,000.  By  a  provision 
of  the  National  Defense  Act  of  1916  the  army  was  increased 
to  207,000.  The  present  tendency  is  to  decrease  its  size, 
and  in  June,  1921,  an  act  was  passed  reducing  the  number 
of  enlisted  men  to  150,000. 

The  Power  to  Support  Armies. — Under  its  power  to 
support  armies.  Congress  may  carry  on  many  functions. 
During  the  World  War,  by  virtue  of  this  power  Congress 
established  the  systems  of  food  and  fuel  administration; 
officers'  training  schools  were  established  in  most  of  the 
colleges  and  universities  of  the  United  States;  the  regu- 
lation of  health  and  disease  was  undertaken  in  the  cities 
near  training  camps;  and  railroad  lines  were  built  in  France. 
In  fact,  during  a  great  war  Congress  can  bend  every  energy 
of  the  country  toward  the  winning  of  that  war. 

Control  of  the  Army. — At  the  head  of  the  army  and  the 
navy  is  the  President  of  the  United  States,  who  has  general 
supervision  and  control  over  all  military  and  naval  activi- 
ties. Directly  under  him  is  the  Secretary  of  War,  who  has 
charge  of  the  organization,  equipment,  and  control  of  the 
army.  The  Secretary  of  War  is  a  civilian  who  is  appointed 
by  the  President.  We  can  thus  see  that,  although  the  army 
is  powerful,  it  is  always  under  the  control  of  the  people,  for 
it  is  raised  and  supported  by  Congress,  the  power  to  declare 
war  rests  with  Congress  alone,  and  the  army  is  directly 
under  the  command  of  the  President. 

Development  of  the  Navy. — The  navy  of  today  really 


146 


PUBLIC  DEFENSE  147 

began  in  1885,  when  a  complete  reorganization  of  the  Navy 
Department  took  place.  Some  years  later,  the  Spanish- 
American  War  showed  us  the  importance  of  a  large  navy, 
and  since  that  period  our  naval  program  has  steadily  been 
growing,  until  at  the  opening  of  the  World  War  ours  stood 
third  in  the  navies  of  the  world.  It  has  been  rapidly  de- 
veloped until  now  only  Great  Britain  has  a  larger  navy. 
In  order  to  prevent  naval  development  from  becoming  too 
great  a  burden  upon  our  people  and  a  menace  to  world- 
peace,  the  United  States  has  inaugurated  a  movement  for 
reducing  the  naval  strength  of  the  greatest  sea-powers. 
We  shall  learn  more  of  this  in  Chapter  XLI. 

The  President  is  the  commander  in  chief  of  the  navy. 
The  actual  work  of  supervision  of  the  navy  is  under  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  why  it  is  better  for  our 
country  to  defend  itself  by  means  of  one  army,  and  one  naw,  in- 
stead of  allowing  each  state  to  have  an  army  and  a  nav3^ 

2.  Read  the  Constitution  of  tlie  United  States,  Article  I,  Sec- 
tion 8,  paragraphs  11-18.  Name  as  many  things  as  you  can  which 
Congress  has  done  with  the  object  of  "carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,"  although  these  things  are  not  actually  named 
in  the  Constitution. 

3.  What  measures  are  being  taken  to  train  men,  so  that  even 
without  maintaining  a  large  standing  army,  we  can  always  be 
sure  of  a  good-sized  reserve  force? 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE  REGULATION  OF  COMMERCE  AND  OF 
IMMIGRATION 

Regulating  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. — Congress 
is  given  the  power  by  the  Constitution  to  regulate  both 
foreign  commerce  and  commerce  between  the  states.  We 
have  seen  in  Chapter  XXVII  why  it  is  necessary  that  this 
work  should  be  under  the  control  of  the  national  govern- 
ment rather  than  the  state. 

In  1921  the  United  States  exported  $6,516,315,346 
worth  of  merchandise  and  received  from  other  countries 
merclmndise  valued  at  $3,654,449,430.  We  can  see  that 
the  regulation  of  such  an  immense  amount  of  trade  is  a  very 
important  matter.  We  may  well  ask  the  question,  "How 
does  Congress  regulate  foreign  commerce?" 

Tariff  on  Imports. — The  chief  regulation  upon  foreign 
commerce  consists  of  levying  taxes  on  certain  goods  that 
come  into  the  United  States.  This  is  done  for  several 
reasons.  It  is  an  easy  way  to  collect  revenue  to  help  pay 
the  expenses  of  government.  Those  who  approve  of  high 
taxes,  or  tariffs,  on  imported  goods  claim  that  these  tariffs 
help  new  industries  in  this  country,  by  keeping  out  foreign 
competition  until  the  industries  are  well  started  here,  or 
at  least  by  making  the  foreign  goods  so  high  priced  that 
people  will  prefer  to  buy  the  American-made  articles. 
They  also  claim  that  the  tariff  is  good  for  workingmen. 
They  say  that  the  manufacturer  who  is  selling  goods  made 

148 


REGULATION  OF  COMMERCE  AND  IMMIGRATION     149 

in  America  at  a  high  price  can  afford  to  pay  high  wages, 
while  if  he  had  to  cut  down  his  prices  to  compete  with 
foreign  goods,  he  would  have  to  cut  wages  also. 

On  the  other  hand,  those  who  oppose  high  tariffs  claim 
that  the  buyer,  not  the  manufacturer,  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered. They  say  that  it  is  not  fair  to  protect  manufac- 
turers and  let  them  ask  high  prices,  when  they  would  have 
to  sell  goods  more  cheaply  if  low-priced  foreign  articles  were 
allowed  to  come  in  without  charge.  They  claim  that  the 
manufacturers  who  do  not  enjoy  the  protection  of  the  high 
tariff  pay  just  the  same  wages  as  those  who  do;  while  the 
latter  are  simply  enabled  to  make  very  large  profits  which 
benefit  nobody  but  themselves.  They  say,  also,  that  any 
industry  which  cannot  be  carried  on  without  the  high  tariff 
to  protect  it  (except  a  new,  or  "infant"  industry,  which 
may  need  a  little  help)  is  not  necessary  to  the  general  wel- 
fare; and  that  the  money  invested  in  it  ought  to  be  used  in 
.some  other  field  of  business,  where  it  can  earn  profits  with- 
out forcing  the  public  to  pay  high  prices. 

This  question  of  the  tariff  has  been  one  of  the  great  po- 
litical questions  before  the  people  of  the  United  States  for 
a  whole  century.  It  has,  to  a  large  extent,  divided  the  coun- 
try into  two  parties.  The  Republicans  contend  for  a  high 
tariff  for  the  reasons  given  above;  while  the  Democrats 
contend  that  we  should  have  a  tariff  for  revenue  only. 

Since  1916  we  have  had  a  tariff  commission,  whose  duties 
are  to  make  a  study  of  the  tariff  needs  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  country.  The  actual  making  of  the  tariff  is,  however, 
left  to  Congress. 

The  Need  of  Restricting  Immigration. — Another  im- 
portant duty  undertaken  by  our  national  government, 
through  Congress,  is  the  regulation  of  immigration.     If 


150  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

every  person  in  the  whole  world  were  absolutely  free  to  come 
to  the  United  States  to  live,  we  can  see  that  the  country 
might  soon  have  an  enormous  population,  with  all  kinds  of 
religion,  all  the  different  languages  of  the  world,  and  many 
different  customs.  Many  people  might  come  into  the 
United  States  who  would  not  make  good  citizens.  If  all 
these  people  actually  came  to  us,  we  might  find  so  many 
differences  among  them  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  them 
to  cooperate  and  work  together  for  the  welfare  of  the  coun- 
try. If  there  were  no  public  control  over  immigration,  we 
might  soon  find  that  other  countries  were  sending  us  all  their 
paupers,  their  criminals,  and  their  defective  classes.  For 
these  and  other  reasons  it  is  necessary  that  the  government 
shall  have  control  over  immigration. 

Restrictions  on  Immigrants. — Congress,  therefore,  passes 
laws  saying  what  people  can  come  into  the  United  States 
and  under  what  conditions.  Under  the  present  law,  ad- 
mission is  refused  to  aliens  who  are  illiterate,  who  have  cer- 
tain physical  and  mental  defects,  who  have  been  criminals, 
who  are  morally  defective,  or  who  may  become  paupers. 
Admission  is  refused  also  to  cheap  contract  laborers,  that 
is,  people  who  have  made  a  contract  to  work  for  some  em- 
ployer at  wages  so  low  that  they  cannot  live  decently  in 
this  country.    Some  oriental  peoples  are  also  excluded. 

Before  an  alien  can  come  into  the  United  States,  he  must 
be  examined,  to  prove  that  he  is  not  a  member  of  any  of 
the  debarred  races,  that  he  has  a  strong  body,  that  he  has 
no  serious  mental  defects,  that  he  can  read  and  write  some 
language,  that  he  is  not  morally  defective,  that  he  is  not  an 
anarchist  or  a  polygamist,  is  not  a  contract  laborer,  or  has 
not  been  assisted  to  emigrate.  The  alien  must  pay  a  tax 
of  $8  to  the  government  for  the  cost  of  making  the  exam- 


REGULATION  OF  COMMERCE  AND  IMMIGRATION    151 

inations.  How  large  is  this  problem  of  examining  all  the 
immigrants  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  from  1905 
to  1914  an  average  of  over  a  million  immigrants  came  to 
this  country  annually. 

A  federal  law  of  1921  provides  that  the  number  of  aliens 
of  any  nationality  who  may  be  admitted  in  any  fiscal  year 


The  women  at  the  left  of  the  picture  are  seeking  admission  to  the 
United  States.  Each  one  will  be  examined  in  turn.  The  woman 
seated  by  the  table  is  now  taking  her  examination. 

shall  be  not  more  than  three  per  cent  of  the  number  of 
foreign-born  persons  of  the  same  nationality  who  were 
residing  in  the  United  States  when  the  1910  census  was 
taken. 

Bureau  of  Immigration. — In  order  that  the  work  of  ex- 
amination and  exclusion  may  be  well  carried  out,  it  is  in- 
trusted to  the  bureau  of  immigration,  at  the  head  of  which 
is  the  commissioner  general  of  immigration.    This  bureau 


152  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

is  a  subdivision  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  about  which 
we  shall  hear  later.  It  maintains  various  stations  at  the 
principal  ports  of  the  United  States,  where  the  immigrants 
may  be  examined.  The  most  important  of  these  stations 
are  at  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  New 
Orleans,  Galveston,  San  Francisco,  and  Seattle. 

Regulating  Interstate  Commerce. — By  the  Constitution, 
Congress  is  given  the  power  to  regulate  and  control  com- 
merce between  the  states.  There  are  many  ways  in  which 
it  does  this.  It  may  regulate  the  rates  charged  by  railway 
companies  or  other  companies  engaged  in  interstate  com- 
merce, may  regulate  the  kinds  of  service  that  shall  be  given, 
and  may  make  requirements  as  to  safety  appliances.  It 
may  prevent  combinations  in  restraint  of  trade  between 
states ;  that  is,  any  sort  of  agreement  or  arrangement  which 
will  interfere  with  the  ordinary  course  of  business.  It 
may  inspect  drugs  and  foods,  and  may  regulate  many  other 
matters.  In  all  these  cases  it  establishes  agencies  to  carry 
out  the  law.  The  principal  agencies  that  do  the  actual 
work  of  regulating  interstate  commerce  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  has  charge  of 
carrying  out  the  federal  laws  in  regard  to  railway  and 
steamship  companies,  sleeping  car  and  express  car  com- 
panies, telephone  and  telegraph  companies,  and  oil  pipe 
companies,  whenever  they  are  engaged  in  interstate  com- 
merce. This  commission  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  seeing 
that  these  companies  charge  reasonable  rates,  and  that  they 
do  not  discriminate  between  shippers  or  localities. 

2.  The  Federal  Trade  Commission  has  the  task  of  seeing 
that  persons,  partnerships,  and  corporations  do  not  use 
unfair  methods  of  competition  in  interstate  commerce. 
In  case  the  commission  believes  that  unfair  practices  are 


REGULATION  OF  COMMERCE  AND  IMMIGRATION     153 

being  used,  it  makes  an  investigation  and  has  a  hearing. 
At  the  end  of  this  hearing  the  commission  makes  an  order 
which  must  be  obeyed  by  the  party  that  has  been  unfair, 
unless,  upon  an  appeal  to  a  circuit  court  of  appeals,  the 
order  of  the  commission  is  modified  or  set  aside  by  the 
court.  This  commission  also  gathers,  puts  in  shape,  and 
publishes  information  on  the  organization,  methods  of 
management,  and  practices  of  any  corporation  engaged 
in  interstate  trade,  with  the  exception  of  banks  and  rail- 
road companies,  which  are  controlled  in  a  different  manner. 
The  Purpose  of  National  Regulations.— The  objects  of 
the  national  government  in  regulating  foreign  commerce, 
interstate  commerce,  and  immigration  are  to  secure  the  pros- 
perity of  all  the  American  people,  to  prevent  undesirable 
foreigners  from  injuring  them  in  any  way,  and  to  do  justice 
to  both  business  interests  and  the  general  public. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  what  is  meant  by  a  tariff  on  imports. 

2.  Show  clearly  why  a  tariff  makes  the  price  of  the  goods  higher. 

3.  What  arguments  are  given  by  those  who  favor  high  tariffs? 
Explain  fully  each  of  these. 

4.  'Wliat  arguments  are  given  by  those  who  oppose  high  tariff? 
Explain  each  one  carefully. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  "tariff  for  revenue  only  "  ? 

6.  Why    does    Congress    place    restrictions    upon    immigration 
from  foreign  countries? 

7.  What  quahties  make  an  immigrant  a  desirable  citizen?    What 
qualities  make  him  undesirable? 

8.  What  restrictions  and  conditions  has  Congress  made  in  re- 
gard to  immigration? 

9.  What  is  interstate  commerce? 

10.  Why  is  the  control  of  interstate  commerce  placed  in  the  hands 


154  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

of  Congress,  instead*  of  being  left  to  treaties  or  agreements  between 
the  states? 

11.  Explain  some  of  the  ways  in  which  Congress  regulates  inter- 
state commerce. 

12.  What   is  the  work  of   the   Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion? 

13.  What  is  the  work  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commission? 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
THE  POST   OFFICE  DEPARTMENT 

Value  of  the  Postal  Service. — In  Article  I,  Section  8,  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Congress  is  given  the 
power  "to  estabHsh  post  offices  and  post  roads."  It  has* 
used  this  power  to  develop  our  present  great  postal  system, 
which  renders  many  public  services  of  a  very  important 
type. 

The  carrying  of  letters,  cards,  newspapers,  magazines, 
and  other  mail  is  not  only  a  great  convenience  to  practically 
every  person  in  the  country,  but  it  is  a  valuable  help  to  all 
kinds  of  business.  The  distribution  of  newspapers  and 
periodicals  does  much  to  educate  the  public,  and  for  this 
reason  the  charges  for  carrying  such  things  are  made  as  low 
as  possible. 

Agreements  are  made  with  foreign  countries  in  regard 
to  the  exchange  of  mail  service,  so  that  communication 
is  possible  among  persons  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Parcel  Post. — The  parcel  post  service  has  been  of 
great  benefit  to  the  public.  Though  it  was  established  only 
a  short  time  ago,  going  into  effect  on  January  1,  1913,  it 
has  already  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  indispensable.  Per- 
sons living  on  farms  or  in  parts  of  the  country  removed 
from  large  markets  and  stores,  as  well  as  from  railways  and 
express  offices,  are  now  able  to  order  goods  by  mail,  and  to 
receive  them  promptly  through  the  parcel  post  service. 

Rural  Mail  Delivery. — The  rural  delivery  mail  routes 

1.55 


156  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

have  done  much  to  make  country  Kfe  happier.  Instead 
of  being  shut  off  from  the  outside  world,  as  in  the  past,  with 
no  newspapers,  magazines,  or  letters  available  except  when 
an  occasional  journey  could  be  made  to  the  nearest  town, 
those  who  live  in  the  rural  districts  today  are  in  daily 
touch  with  public  affairs  and  personal  friends,  through  the 
rural  delivery  system. 

Special  Postal  Privileges. — The  privilege  of  having  mail 
registered  or  insured  for  a  small  extra  payment  is  very 
valuable  indeed  to  those  who  wish  to  send  important  docu- 
ments or  costly  goods  through  the  mail  with  almost  positive 
certainty  that  they  will  be  delivered  in  safety.  When  it  is 
necessary  that  a  piece  of  mail  shall  reach  its  destination  as 
quickly  as  possible,  special  delivery  service  may  be  secured 
in  all  cities  and  many  smaller  places.  As  soon  as  a  special 
delivery  letter  reaches  its  destination  post  office,  a  mes- 
senger is  sent  out  to  deliver  it  to  the  person  to  whom  it  is 
addressed,  not  waiting  for  the  usual  carrier  to  take  it. 
Another  convenient  feature  of  our  postal  system  is  the 
privilege  of  having  purchases  sent  by  mail,  to  be  paid  for 
on  delivery.    This  so-called  C.  0.  D.  service  is  very  popular. 

Postal  Savings  Banks. — In  1910  Congress  passed  a  law 
establishing  postal  savings  banks.  At  first  no  person  was 
allowed  to  deposit  more  than  $500  in  these  banks,  but  on 
July  2,  1918,  an  act  took  effect  which  raised  this  maximum 
to  $2500.  The  advantage  of  the  postal  savings  banks  over 
other  savings  banks  is  that  they  will  receive  deposits 
as  low  as  one  dollar,  and  that  they  issue  ten-cent  stamps 
which  may  be  saved  upon  a  card  until  the  purchaser  has  a 
dollar's  worth,  which  will  then  be  credited  to  his  account 
when  he  hands  in  his  card  to  the  postmaster.  With  the 
help  of  these  stamps,  children  or  persons  who  have  only  a 


THE  POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT  157 

very  small  amcunt  of  money  can  save  little  by  little.  Two 
per  cent  interest  is  paid  the  depositor  of  funds  in  these 
postal  savings  banks,  and  the  safety  of  the  money  deposited 
is  guaranteed  by  the  national  government. 

Thrift  Stamps. — During  the  World  War  the  system  of 
selling  thrift  stamps  and  war-savings  certificates  through 
the  Post  Office  Department  was  put  into  operation.  The 
sales  made  in  this  way  were  very  large.  During  the  fiscal 
year  1918,  through  the  agency  of  postmasters,  80,965,404 
war  savings  stamps  and  201,702,334  thrift  stamps  were 
sold.  These  sales  helped  the  federal  government  by  pro- 
viding it  with  money  to  carry  on  its  work,  and  at  the  same 
time  helped  each  purchaser  to  save  money  for  the  future, 
as  the  stamps  are  really  certificates  of  loans  which  will  be 
repaid    by    the    government. 

Postal  Money  Orders. — A  long-established  branch  of 
our  postal  service  is  the  sale  of  money  orders.  A  person 
may  pay  a  sum  of  money  to  a  postmaster  and  receive  a 
certificate  which  he  can  send  to  a  distant  place.  The  person 
receiving  the  certificate  will  be  able  to  secure  the  amount  of 
money  deposited  in  the  first  post  oflfice,  from  his  own  post 
office  many  miles  away.  The  fee  for  this  service  is  small, 
and  the  safe  delivery  of  the  money  is  almost  certain.  If 
the  order  is  lost  or  destroyed,  the  money  will  be  refunded. 

Other  Postal  Services. — Other  types  of  service  given  by 
the  Post  Office  Department  are  railway  mail  service,  motor 
vehicle  service  in  cities,  and  air  service  between  certain 
cities  of  the  United  States.  All  these  branches  will  develop 
more  and  more  in  the  near  future. 

The  work  which  we  have  described  does  not  by  any 
means  cover  all  that  is  done  by  the  Post  Office  Department; 
but  it  will  make  it  clear  to  us  why  the  Postmaster-General 


158  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

must  have  four  Assistant  Postmasters-General  to  supervise 
the  various  branches  of  service. 

Revenues  and  Expenses. — There  are  more  than  54,000 
post  offices  in  the  United  States.  They  employ  a  large 
number  of  persons  and  do  an  important  business.  In 
1921  the  revenues  of  the  postal  service  were  more  than 
$463,000,000,    while   its   expenditures   were   $620,000,000. 


The  mail  which  has  been  brousht  by  airplane  from  a  distant  city  is  being 
transferred  to  a  motor  truck,  which  will  take  it  from  the  aviation  field  to 
the  post  office. 

In  addition  to  this  deficit,  we  must  note  the  heavy  cost  of 
construction,  upkeep,  and  replacement  of  federal  post  office 
buildings.  If  all  of  these  items  were  counted,  it  would  be 
found  that  the  government  renders  the  great  benefits  of 
the  postal  service  at  far  less  than  cost. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Of  what  value  to  the  public  is  the  United  States  postal  service? 

2.  Why  are  newspapers  and  magazines  carried  for  a  low  rate  of 
postage? 


THE  POST  OFFICE  DEPARTMENT  159 

3.  Describe  the  parcel  post  service.     Obtain  the  rules  govern- 
ing this  service,  and  explain  the  zone  system. 

4.  Tell  of  the  various  special  postal  services  which  can  be  pur- 
chased at  a  low  rate. 

5.  Describe  the  postal  savings  bank  system.     Wliat  kinds  of 
depositors  find  this  system  of  great  value? 

6.  What  is  a  money  order?    Explain  its  advantages. 

7.  Would  it  be  possible  for  the  post  office  department  to  lower 
its  rates  very  much?    Explain  your  answer. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 
THE    CONSERVATION    OF    NATURAL    RESOURCES 

Consequences  of  Wasting  Our  Resources. — President 
Roosevelt  once  said,  before  a  conference  of  governors,  that 
"the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources  and  their  proper 
use  constitute  the  fundamental  problem  which  underlies 
almost  every  other  problem  of  our  national  life."  We  can 
readily  see  why  this  is  so.  If  our  iron  becomes  exhausted, 
we  shall  have  to  import  steel  products  from  other  countries 
at  high  cost.  When  we  consider  how  much  our  modern 
civilization  depends  upon  iron  and  steel,  we  realize  that 
the  exhaustion  of  our  iron  supply  alone  would  make  our 
country  much  less  desiraljle  to  live  in.  If  our  land  becomes 
worn  out  through  careless  use,  it  will  not  raise  so  much  as 
formerly,  and  in  consequence  each  farmer  will  have  to  work 
harder,  the  price  of  all  farm  products  will  increase,  and 
everyone  will  have  to  live  in  a  less  comfortable  fashion  than 
before.  If  we  let  our  forests  be  used  without  thought  for 
the  future,  we  shall  soon  find  that  it  will  be  difficult  to 
provide  enough  homes  for  our  people.  If  we  let  a  few 
people  control  our  resources  and  become  immensely  wealthy, 
the  rest  of  us  are  just  so  much  the  poorer. 

Our  natural  resources  consist  very  largely  in  those  great 
supplies  of  minerals,  forests,  and  lands  with  which  the 
United  States  is  so  richly  endowed.  Probably  no  other 
country  has  a  greater  diversity  of  these  resources. 

Wasting  the  Forests. — The  original  forests  of  the  United 

160 


THE  COXSERVATIOX  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES     161 

States  covered  about  850,000,000  square  acres.  At  the 
present  time  they  cover  only  about  550,000,000  square 
acres.  But  these  figures  loolc  on  paper  very  much  better 
than  the  actual  facts.  While  it  is  true  that  we  have  cut 
or  destroyed  only  about  one  third  of  our  acreage,  this  por- 
tion represents  the  very  best  part  of  the  timber.     Much 


See  how  wastefully  this  forest  has  been  treated.  Much  timber  is 
left  to  decay,  and  there  are  no  young  trees  coming  on.  How  long 
would  our  forests  last  if  all  were  treated  like  this? 


of  that  which  remains  consists  of  inferior  kinds  of  timber 
and  trees  of  very  much  less  value.  At  the  present  rate  of 
consumption  it  is  estimated  that  our  forests  will  be  ex- 
hausted within  the  next  forty  or  fifty  years,  unless  we  take 
definite  steps  to  protect  them  and  start  on  a  large  project 
of  replanting. 

Forest  Reserves. — The  conservation  of  forests  has  been 


162  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

started  by  the  government  along  two  main  lines.  The 
first  is  the  system  of  setting  aside  forest  reserves.  National 
forests,  of  which  there  are  today  something  hke  168,000,000 
square  acres,  have  been  set  aside  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment and  are  carefully  protected  by  it.  Several  of  the 
states  also  have  set  aside  forest  reservations.  All  together, 
nearly  one  half  of  the  forest  land  in  the  United  States  is 
owned  by  either  the  states  or  the  national  government. 
Much  of  this  land,  however,  is  not  particularly  good,  and 
the  very  best  of  our  timber  land  is  owned  and  controlled  by 
private  individuals  and  corporations. 

Conservation  by  Fire  Prevention  and  Planting.— The 
second  method  of  conserving  our  forests  consists  in  planting 
trees  and  preventing  fires.  The  care  of  the  national  forests 
is  intrusted  to  the  National  Forest  Service,  which  is  a  bureau 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The  forest  service  per- 
forms many  very  valuable  functions,  among  which  are  the 
planting  and  care  of  young  trees,  the  harvesting  of  mature 
timber,  the  leasing  of  forest  lands  for  sheep  and  cattle,  and 
the  building  of  roads  through  the  forests. 

Mineral  Resources. — Unlike  the  forests,  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  country  cannot  be  replaced  after  they  are 
exhausted.  For  many  years  we  fully  believed  that  we  had 
an  inexhaustible  mineral  supply  in  the  United  States.  With 
our  rapid  development  in  population,  however,  the  use  of 
minerals  has  increased  so  greatly  that  unless  careful  steps 
are  taken  it  will  be  only  a  few  years,  relatively  speaking, 
before  our  best  mineral  resources  have  been  exhausted  and 
we  must  depend  on  the  lower  grades.  Finally,  we  may  find 
ourselves  without  these  necessary  factors  of  modern  civili- 
zation. 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  may  be  clas- 


THE  CONSERVATION  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES     163 

sified  as  coal,  iron  ore,  precious  metals,  oils,  building  stone, 
and  miscellaneous  minerals. 

These  have  all  been  produced  by  careless  methods  which 
have  wasted  much  valuable  material,  and  the  minerals 
themselves  have  been  used  very  extravagantly.  Coal,  for 
example,  has  been  wasted  by  the  old-fashioned  system  of 
mining  which  left  great  pillars  of  this  valuable  fuel  in  each 
mine  to  support  the  roof.  Of  course,  artificial  supports 
should  be  placed  in  the  mines,  and  the  coal  should  be  taken 
out.  Then,  coal  has  been  wasted  by  careless  burning, 
which  often  led  to  the  throwing  away  of  a  good  deal  of  coal 
in  ashes;  and  also  by  the  use  of  coal  to  run  machinery  or  to 
generate  electricity,  when  water  power  from  streams  and 
falls  would  have  answered  the  purpose.  The  same  kind 
of  thing  is  true  of  the  production  and  use  of  other  mineral 
resources.  The  only  methods  which  will  remedy  the  situa- 
tion are  greater  care  in  production,  so  that  no  waste  is  per- 
mitted, and  careful  and  sparing  use  of  the  products,  in 
order  to  make  them  last  as  long  as  possible. 

Resources  in  Land. — Like  our  other  natural  resources, 
land  used  to  be  so  abundant  in  the  United  States  that  it 
seemed  almost  impossible  for  the  supply  to  run  low.  But 
our  population  has  increased  from  a  little  more  than 
5,000,000  people  in  1800,  to  more  than  105,000,000  in  1920. 
In  spite  of  the  great  additions  to  our  territory  since  1800, 
we  have  not  nearly  so  much  land,  in  proportion  to  our 
population,  as  we  had  then.  It  used  to  be  possible  for 
settlers  to  find  in  the  western  plains  miles  upon  miles  of 
rich  fertile  land  upon  which  they  could  settle  and  make 
their  fortunes.  This  land  was  often  carelessly  used,  so  that 
in  many  cases  its  richness  has  been  destroyed.  The  best 
lands  were  settled  long  ago;  yet  it  was  necessary  to  provide 


164  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

more  homes  for  our  people  and  more  opportunities  for  agri- 
culture. 

Reclamation  of  Arid  Land. — Both  the  federal  govern- 
ment and  the  governments  of  the  states  became  interested 
in  this  land  question,  with  the  result  that  in  1877  the  Desert 
Land  Act  was  passed.  This  act  offered  large  tracts  of  arid 
land  to  settlers  at  the  very  low  rate  of  twenty-five  cents  an 
acre,  on  condition  that  the  settlers  should  do  a  certain 
amount  of  irrigation  within  three  years.  This  was  followed 
by  an  act  of  1895,  providing  that  the  federal  government 
should  give  lands  to  the  states  in  the  arid  sections  of  the 
country,  on  the  condition  that  the  states  should  arrange 
to  have  this  land  irrigated  and  settled. 

In  1902  there  was  passed  an  important  act  providing  for 
the  irrigation  of  certain  lands  by  the  federal  government 
itself.  The  land  is  sold  to  settlers,  who  must  also  pay  the 
government  for  the  work  of  irrigation. 

This  work,  and  the  similar  work  of  draining  swampy 
lands  and  otherwise  making  useless  lands  into  valuable  ones, 
is  known  as  reclamation.  It  is  conducted  by  a  Reclamation 
Service  Bureau  under  the  Department  of  the  Interior  (of 
which  we  shall  hear  more  later);  and  in  the  1918  report  of 
this  department  we  are  told  that  the  reclaimed  lands  yielded 
a  crop  during  the  previous  year  "more  than  that  produced 
for  any  New  England  state  at  the  last  national  census. 
Thus,  in  effect,  a  new  state  has  been  added  to  the  nation." 

Improved  Agricultural  Methods. — In  addition  to  re- 
claiming land,  the  federal  government  is  doing  much  to 
teach  the  best  methods  of  making  use  of  land.  Rotation 
of  crops,  testing  of  soils,  the  addition  of  suitable  fertilizers 
in  order  to  keep  the  land  rich,  and  many  other  valuable 
lessons  are  taught  by  the  literature  and  agents  of  the  De- 


THE  CONSERVATIOX  OF  NATURAL  RESOURCES     165 

partment  of  Agriculture.  Much  of  our  nation's  prosperity 
depends  upon  agriculture;  and  the  government  is  doing  all 
in  its  power  to  teach  the  best  and  most  progressive  methods 
of  meeting  all  agricultural  problems.  Diseases  of  livestock, 
remedies  for  blights  and  rusts  of  various  kinds,  methods  of 
fighting  destructive  insects,  and  numerous  other  problems 
are  studied  carefully  by  government  experts,  and  accounts 
of  the  discoveries  made  by  them  are  printed  and  circulated, 
often  free  of  charge.  Most  states  do  work  of  this  same  type, 
devoting  themselves  more  particularly  to  the  problems  of 
their  own  domain.  With  such  helps,  our  land  can  be  used 
to  the  best  advantage,  so  that  it  will  bring  forth  an  abun- 
dance of  food. 

"Care  and  conscience"  are  the  two  essentials  which 
must  be  required  of  all  who  control  or  use  our  natural  re- 
sources. With  "care  and  conscience,"  we  shall  be  able  to 
supply  ourselves  abundantly,  and  yet  leave  plenty  for  many 
generations  that  will  follow  us. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  meant  by  natural  resources? 

2.  What  are  the  principal  natural  resources  of  the  United  States? 
Why  is  it  necessary  to  use  these  carefully? 

3.  Describe  the  work  of  the  United  States  in  conserving  forests. 

4.  How  does  the  conservation  of  forests  benefit  the  general 
public?  What  would  be  the  result  upon  the  prices  of  furniture, 
timber,  and  wood  in  all  forms,  if  no  such  policy  were  jiursued? 

5.  Can  3'ou  explain  why  a  number  of  states  are  undertaking 
forest  conser\-ation? 

6.  Why  do  thoughtful  persons  emphasize  the  necessity  of  great 
care  in  our  production  and  use  of  mineral  resources? 

7.  What  is  the  difference  between  mineral  supplies  and  forests, 
as  natural  resources? 

8.  Name  many  ways  of  helping  to  conserve  mineral  resources. 


166  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

9.  What  can  be  done  to  improve  land  whose  fertihty  has  beea 
destroyed  by  careless  use?  Why  is  it  necessary  to  care  for  land 
in  a  country  so  large  as  ours? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  reclamation  of  land?  What  kinds 
of  lands  are  reclaimed?  Describe  the  various  ways  in  which  the 
work  of  reclamation  is  done. 

11.  Tell  all  that  you  can  of  the  work  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 
PAYING  FOR  THE  WORK  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT 

National  Expenditures. — The  many  and  varied  activi- 
ties of  the  national  government  require  the  expenditure  of 
enormous  sums  of  money.  This  expenditure  averages  over 
one  billion  dollars  a  year,  or  about  ten  dollars  per  capita — 
that  is,  for  each  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  United  States. 
Where  and  how  is  this  money  obtained? 

Excise  Taxes  and  Customs  Duties. — For  many  years 
the  government  derived  nearly  all  its  revenue  from  two 
sources:  internal  revenue,  or  excise  taxes  laid  on  liquors 
of  various  kinds,  tobacco,  and  a  few  other  articles;  and 
customs  duties,  or  tariffs,  laid  on  imports  from  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  reasons  why  these  taxes  were  depended  upon 
to  such  an  extent  are  easy  to  see. 

In  the  first  place,  they  yield  large  sums  of  money.  Again, 
they  are  quite  easy  to  collect,  as  inspectors  and  collectors 
employed  by  the  government  can  watch  factories  and  ports 
in  order  to  make  sure  that  the  taxes  are  paid.  They  are 
also  less  irritating  to  the  public  than  taxes  collected  from 
the  final  purchaser  of  the  goods,  such  as  a  tax  of  one  cent 
on  each  ten  cents'  worth  of  perfume  or  soda  water.  Of 
course,  it  is  the  public  that  actually  pays  the  excise  and 
customs  taxes,  for  when  the  tobacco  manufacturer  or  the 
importer  has  paid  the  tax,  he  simply  adds  that  amount  to 
the  price  which  he  asks.  However,  the  purchasers  of  to- 
bacco and  imported  goods  do  not  think  much  about  this, 

167 


168  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

as  a  rule;  and  in  any  case  they  are  not  constantly  annoyed 
by  the  demand  for  taxes  a  dozen  times  a  day.  Hence  these 
taxes  are  much  favored.  The  amount  of  money  received 
from  excise  taxes  will  be  much  less  in  the  future  than  in  the 
past,  as  the  constitutional  amendment  establishing  national 
prohibition  has  cut  off  the  revenue  from  taxation  of  liquors. 

Income  Taxes  and  Excess  Profits  Tax. — Since  1909 
Congress  has  not  depended  altogether  on  these  two  forms  of 
taxation.  In  that  year  it  began  to  tax  the  incomes  of  cor- 
porations, and  since  1913  it  has  taxed  also  the  incomes 
of  individuals.  The  rate  of  taxation  on  individual  incomes 
rises  rapidly  as  the  size  of  the  income  increases.  During 
the  World  War  and  the  years  directly  following  it  (until 
1922),  Congress  raised  a  large  amount  of  money  by  an  excess 
profits  tax.  This  is  a  tax  on  all  business  profits  above  a 
certain  percentage.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  during  the 
last  half  of  1917  and  the  first  half  of  1918,  the  receipts  from 
these  last  three  forms  of  taxation  nearly  equalled  the  in- 
ternal revenue  receipts. 

Those  who  favor  income  taxes  and  excess  profits  taxes 
argue  that  al^ility  to  pay  is  the  best  basis  of  taxation,  and 
that  large  incomes  and  excess  profits  both  show  ability  to 
pay. 

Borrowing  by  the  Government;  The  National  Debt. — 
In  time  of  war  or  emergency,  antl  when  great  public  works 
are  to  be  undertaken,  the  government  secures  much  money 
through  borrowing  it  from  private  individuals,  and  giving 
promises  to  pay  the  money  back  at  a  certain  time  with 
interest.  These  various  promises  to  pay  are  called  notes, 
bonds,  and  war  savings  certificates. 

From  1888  until  1916,  the  debt  of  the  country  was  always 
just  about  a  billion  dollars,  or  about  ten  dollars  per  capita. 


PAYIXG  FOR  WORK  OF  THE  GOVERXIMEXT       1G9 

In  carrying  on  the  Workl  War,  however,  the  government 
rapidly  increased  the  national  debt  until  by  1919  it 
amounted  to  more  than  twenty-five  billions  of  dollars; 
and  it  is  now  about  $237.00  per  capita. 

Method  of  Spending  Money. — Probably  the  weakest 
spot  in  our  national  government  is  its  expenditure  of  money. 
In  every  well-organized  business  the  manager  and  the  board 
of  directors  make  plans  for  expending  money.  In  the 
national  government  the  President  and  the  members  of  his 
cabinet  have  very  little  to  do  with  financial  planning,  which 
is  carried  on  through  a  number  of  committees  in  Congress, 
such  as  the  committee  on  army  and  navy  and  the  committee 
on  rivers  and  harbors.  These  various  committees  do  not 
act  in  harmony  with  one  another.  Each  wishes  to  secure 
as  much  money  as  possible  for  the  branches  of  service  under 
its  own  jurisdiction. 

Those  who  plan  for  the  raising  of  money  are  not  the  same 
group  of  persons  as  those  who  plan  for  the  spending  of 
money.  Therefore  we  often  have  a  large  surplus  in  the 
treasurj',  which  means  that  the  government  has  collected 
more  money  from  the  people  than  it  needs;  or  else  we  have  a 
large  deficit,  which  means  that  the  government  must  borrow 
in  order  to  pa}^  the  appropriations  that  have  been  passed. 

The  Budget  System. — This  financial  problem  has  been 
solved  in  several  other  countries  by  providing  that  the 
legislative  body  shall  not  consider  any  motion  or  bill  in- 
volving an  expenditure,  unless  such  an  expenditure  is  recom- 
mended by  the  prime  minister  and  the  cabinet.  Many 
thinking  people  have  tried  to  work  out  some  satisfactory 
system  for  the  United  States  whereby  a  budget — that  is, 
a  scientific  plan  for  the  raising  and  spending  of  money — shall 
be  made  the  basis  of  all  financial  operations.     A  budget 


170  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

law  of  1921  provides  that  the  President  shall  prepare  a 
budget,  with  the  help  of  a  budget  bureau;  and  shall  present 
it  to  Congress  at  the  opening  of  each  session.  Since  there 
is  no  limitation  upon  the  power  of  Congress  to  alter,  revise, 
or  even  reject  the  budget,  the  law  is  little  more  than  a 
first  step  in  the  right  direction. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Explain  excise  taxes.  Explain  customs  duties.  Why  have  these 
two  taxes  formerly  been  the  chief  source  of  income  of  the  national 
government? 

2.  What  is  a  corporation  tax?  An  income  tax?  An  excess 
profits  tax?  Can  you  explain  the  basis  on  which  these  taxes  are 
levied? 

3.  In  what  ways  did  our  national  government  borrow  money 
from  the  public  during  the  World  War?  What  was  the  effect  of 
this  war  on  our  national  debt? 

4.  What  is  a  budget?    What  is  the  use  of  a  budget? 

5.  Why  should  the  same  persons  plan  to  raise  money  and  to 
expend  it  for  various  kinds  of  work?  What  is  the  effect  when  those 
who  plan  to  raise  it  have  no  connection  with  those  who  plan  to 
spend  it? 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE    FEDERAL    CONSTITUTION 

Organizing  the  Government. — In  Chapter  XXVII  we 
saw  how  the  federal  Constitution  was  estabhshed.  In  this 
chapter  we  shall  find  out  what  the  federal  Constitution  is, 
and  how  it  influences  our  government. 

In  the  first  place,  the  Constitution  organizes  the  national 
government.  It  says  who  shall  be  the  chief  executive 
officer,  how  he  shall  be  elected,  what  his  powers  shall  be,  and 
how  he  may  be  removed.  It  likewise  organizes  the  legis- 
lature and  the  courts. 

Powers  of  National  and  State  Governments. — In  the 
second  place,  the  Constitution  says  what  powers  the  na- 
tional government  shall  have  and  what  powers  the  states 
shall  retain.  We  have  seen  why  certain  powers  were  given 
to  the  national  government  instead  of  being  left  with  the 
states.  We  have  seen  that  to  the  national  government 
were  given  those  powers  which  would  keep  the  states  from 
fighting  with  one  another,  which  would  protect  them  from 
foreign  oppression,  and  which  would  accomplish  other 
things  essential  to  the  common  welfare.  These  powers, 
we  learned,  are  the  powers  over  foreign  and  interstate 
commerce,  power  over  the  army  and  navy,  power  over  post 
offices  and  post  roads,  etc. 

All  powers  not  delegated  to  the  national  government 
were  left  to  the  states  or  to  the  people  of  the  United  States 
as  a  whole.    A  list  of  the  powers  of  the  national  government 

171 


172  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

and  of  the  state  governments,  as  given  by  Professor  Munro/ 
is  as  follows: 

Federal  Powers  State  Powers 

1.  Taxation    for    federal    pur-        1.  Taxation  for  local  purposes 

poses 

2.  Borrowing  on   the  nation's        2.  Borrowing    on    the    state's 

credit  credit 

3.  Regulation   of  foreign   and        3.  Regulation  of  trade  within 

interstate  commerce  the  state 

4.  Currency  and  coinage  4.  Civil  and  criminal  law 

5.  Foreign   relations  and  trea-        5.  The  police  power 

ties 

6.  Army  and  na\y  6.  Education 

7.  Postal  service  7.  Control  of  local  government 

8.  Patents  and  copyrights  8.  Charities  and  corrections 

9.  Regulation  of  weights  and  9.  Suffrage  and  election 

measures  10.  Organization  and  control  of 

10.  Admission  of  new  states  corporations 

Limitations  on  the  Government. — In  the  third  place, 
the  federal  Constitution  places  certain  great  limitations 
on  both  the  national  government  and  the  state  governments. 
The  people  feared  that  the  governments  might  perhaps 
become  oppressive,  as  certain  European  governments  had 
been.  To  make  sure  that  those  in  control  of  the  govern- 
ments would  not  oppress  the  people,  these  limitations  were 
placed  in  the  Constitution. 

In  order  to  learn  some  of  the  limitations  placed  on  the 
national  government,  read  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  Article  1,  Section  9;  also  the  first  ten  amendments. 
To  learn  some  of  the  limitations  placed  upon  the  states, 
read  Article  1,  Section  10,  of  the  Constitution,  and  Amend- 
ments XIII,  XIV,  and  XV. 

1  Munro,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  page  46. 


THE  FEDERAL  CONSTITUTION  173 

Methods  of  Changing  the  Constitution. — In  the  fourth 
place,  the  national  Constitution  provides  a  method  by  which 
it  may  be  amended  from  time  to  time,  as  the  necessity  arises. 
There  are  two  main  ways  of  changing  the  Constitution: 
(1)  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses  of  Congress  plus 
a  favoral^le  vote  of  three  fourths  of  the  states;  (2)  by  a  con- 
stitutional amendment  being  presented  by  two  thirds  of 
the  states  for  adoption  antl  then  ratified  by  three  fourths 
of  the  states.  So  far  only  the  first  method  has  been 
used. 

The  Amendments. — Since  the  Constitution  was  estab- 
lished, it  has  been  amended  nineteen  times.  The  first  ten 
amendments  were  made  very  shortly  after  the  main  part 
was  adopted;  the  eleventh  was  adopted  in  1798  and  the 
twelfth  in  1804.  The  next  three  amendments  were  adopted 
as  a  result  of  the  Civil  War;  while  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth were  both  adopted  in  the  same  year,  1913.  The 
eighteenth  amendment  is  known  as  the  prohibition  amend- 
ment and  was  adopted  in  1919.  The  nineteentli  amend- 
ment, providing  that  the  right  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied 
or  abridged  by  the  Unit(>d  States  or  by  any  state  on  accoimt 
of  sex,  was  passed  by  both  houses  of  Congress  in  1919  and 
rartified  in  1920. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  is  meant  ]:)y  the  statement  that  the  federal  Constitu- 
tion organizes  the  national  government? 

2.  When  authority  was  distributed  between  the  national  govern- 
ment and  the  state  governments,  what  rule  was  followed?  Look 
at  the  list  of  powers  given  in  the  text,  and  show  how  each  one 
comes  under  this  rule. 

3.  Why  was  it  considered  necessary  to  place  limitations  upon 
the  powers  of  both  national  government  and  state  governments? 


174  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Make  as  long  a  list  as  you  can  of  these  limitations,  and  explain  the 
meaning  of  each. 

4.  Why  did  the  makers  of  our  federal  Constitution  establish  a 
method  for  amending  it?  What  is  likely  to  be  the  case  with  any 
public  document  that  cannot  be  amended? 

5.  Read  all  the  amendments  to  the  Constitution,  and  explain 
each  one. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
THE    LEGISLATIVE    POWER    OF   THE    NATION 

The  Legislative  Power  of  Congress. — According  to  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  the  making  of  national 
laws  is  intrusted  to  Congress.  Congress  is  composed  of  two 
houses  called  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives. 
No  bills  can  become  laws  unless  they  are  passed  by  both 
of  these  houses.  The  power  given  to  Congress  to  make 
laws  is  known  as  legislative  power. 

Number  of  Representatives;  Their  Qualifications. — The 
House  of  Representatives  is  much  the  larger  of  the  two 
houses  of  Congress,  having  at  the  present  time  435  members. 
The  number  of  representatives  which  each  state  sends  to 
Congress  depends  upon  the  number  of  people  living  in 
that  state. 

The  Constitution  provides  that  a  person  shall  have  cer- 
tain qualifications  in  order  to  be  eligible  to  the  office  of 
representative.  He  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  old, 
must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  for  seven 
years.,  and  when  elected  must  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  state 
from  which  he  is  chosen.  Each  member  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  is  elected  for  a  two-year  term,  and  all 
members  of  the  house  are  elected  at  the  same  time. 

Number  of  Senators. — The  Senate  is  much  smaller  than 
the  House  of  Representatives,  having  only  two  members 
from  each  state,  no  matter  what  its  size.  Thus,  New  York 
with  over  ten  million  people  has  only  the  same  number  of 

175 


176  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

senators  that  Nevada  or  Wyoming  has.  At  the  present 
time,  since  there  are  forty-eight  states,  there  are  just  double 
that  number  of  senators. 

Election  of  Senators;  Their  Qualifications.— Previous 
to  the  adoption  of  the  seventeenth  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution, the  members  of  the  Senate  were  elected  by  the 
different  state  legislatures.  Since  that  time,  however,  they 
have  been  elected  by  the  people  of  the  state.  Each  senator 
is  elected  for  a  six-year  term,  and  one  third  of  the  members 
of  the  Senate  retire  every  second  year.  No  state  elects 
both  of  its  senators  at  the  same  time,  unless  some  unex- 
pected vacancy  should  occur.  Senators  are  elected  at  the 
regular  state  elections,  and  all  those  who  have  a  right  to 
vote  for  state  officers  also  have  a  right  to  vote  for  senators. 
In  case  a  senator  dies  or  resigns,  the  governor  calls  a  special 
election,  unless  a  state  election  is  near  at  hand,  in  which 
case  the  governor  may  appoint  a  person  to  fill  the  vacancy 
until  this  election  is  held. 

Like  the  members  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
senators  are  required  by  the  Constitution  to  have  certain 
qualifications.  A  senator  must  be  thirty-five  years  of  age, 
nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  an  inhabitant 
of  the  state  from  which  he  is  chosen. 

The  Influence  of  the  Senate. — The  Senate  has  always 
been  a  much  more  powerful  body  than  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. This  is  due  to  several  facts:  the  senators  are 
elected  from  much  larger  districts  than  the  representatives, 
are  as  a  rule  older  men  with  more  experience,  have  longer 
terms,  and  are  members  of  a  much  smaller  body,  thus  giving 
each  one  of  them  a  larger  chance  to  make  himself  felt.  Other 
factors  that  give  the  Senate  greater  influence  are  the  fact 
that  many  officers,  heads  of  departments,  and  other  public 


THE  LEGISLATIVE  POWER  OF  THE  NATION       177 

servants  appointed  by  the  President  must  be  approved  by 
the  Senate,  and  the  fact  that  it  shares  with  the  President 
the  treat}^  power. 

Powers  of  Congress. — If  you  will  read  Article  I,  Section  8, 
of  the  Constitution,  you  will  see  that  Congress  is  there 
given  power  over  eighteen   large  functions  or  activities. 


The  Senate  Chamber  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington. 


We  shall  have  time  here  to  describe  only  some  of  the  most 
important  of  these.  * 

The  Power  to  Tax. — Congress  is  given  almost  unlimited 
powers  over  taxation.  We  can  readily  see  why  this  is  so, 
if  we  will  think  for  a  few  moments.  Suppose  that  two  or 
three  nations  were  attacking  the  United  States,  and  sup- 
pose that  Congress  were  limited  in  the  amount  of  taxes 
it  could  levy  in  order  to  obtain  money  to  protect  the  nation. 


178  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

If  it  could  not  secure  funds,  the  country  might  perish. 
You  can  see  that,  if  the  World  War  had  continued  a  few 
years  longer,  it  might  have  been  necessary  for  Congress 
to  levy  exceedingly  heavy  taxes  in  order  to  carry  on  the 
war  successfully.  As  it  was,  through  the  combined  power 
of  taxation  and  borrowing,  the  government  secured  money 
that  would  equal  more  than  one  third  of  the  value  of  the 
goods  produced  in  the  United  States  during  any  one 
year. 

The  Power  to  Borrow. — Congress  also  has  the  power  to 
borrow  money.  In  the  case  of  a  great  national  undertaking, 
Congress  often  decides  that  all  the  cost  of  paying  for  it  should 
not  be  collected  from  the  people  within  one  year  or  even 
a  few  years.  Therefore  it  borrows  money,  which  it  agrees 
to  pay  back  gradually,  instead  of  collecting  the  entire 
amount  at  once  from  taxation.  The  Panama  Canal  cost 
over  $378,000,000.  If  all  that  large  sum  of  money  had  been 
raised  by  taxation  in  one  year,  in  addition  to  the  other 
money  that  had  to  be  raised,  it  would  have  proved  a  heavy 
burden  on  the  people.  The  government,  therefore,  bor- 
rowed this  money  for  a  long  term  of  years.  In  time  of 
war  also  the  government  borrows  much  money,  instead 
of  calling  upon  the  people  to  pay  all  the  needed  funds  into 
the  treasury  through  taxes.  During  the  World  War  the 
government  raised  five  large  loans,  totaling  several  billions 
of  dollars.  The  power  of  determining  whether  it  is  best 
for  the  country  to  borrow  money  or  to  raise  it  by  taxation 
is  left  to  Congress. 

Regulating  Commerce. — One  of  the  most  important 
powers  of  Congress  is  the  power  to  regulate  commerce. 
Three  kinds  of  commerce  are  mentioned  in  the  Constitu- 
tion as  subject  to  this  regulation:  commerce  with  foreign 


THE  LEGISLATIVE  POWER  OF  THE  NATION        179 

nations,  among  the  several  states,  and  with  the  Indian 
tribes. 

Foreign  Commerce. — The  regulation  of  foreign  commerce 
by  the  nation  instead  of  the  states  accomplishes  many  valu- 
able results.  In  the  first  place,  it  prevents  friction  between 
the  inland  states  and  the  states  having  harbors  upon  the 
ocean,  or  states  which  border  on  foreign  countries  and  those 
which  do  not.  If  New  York  were  able  to  tax  foreign  com- 
merce, she  would  grow  very  wealthy  from  doing  so,  while 
the  inland  states  would  regard  her  with  envy.  As  it  is  now, 
the  money  that  is  received  at  the  port  of  New  York  goes  to 
the  national  government  and  is  distributed  throughout  the 
states  in  the  form  of  services  to  the  people.  By  having  the 
national  government  regulate  this  commerce,  it  is  possible 
to  establish  much  better  tariff  relations  with  other  coun- 
tries than  if  the  states  had  charge  of  such  regulation.  Re- 
ceipts from  foreign  commerce  are  also  a  ver}^  good  way 
for  the  national  government  to  collect  part  of  its  revenue. 

Interstate  Commerce. — Congress  has  the  power  to 
regulate  commerce  among  the  states.  The  word  commerce 
has  been  given  a  very  broad  definition  by  the  courts,  so 
that  it  includes  many  kinds  of  business  intercourse  between 
the  states.  It  includes  the  sending  of  goods  from  one  state 
to  another,  the  sending  of  telephone  and  telegraph  messages, 
the  transportation  of  passengers,  and  the  shipping  of  oil 
in  pipe  lines. 

Probably  there  is  no  other  single  power  of  Congress  that 
has  done  so  much  to  make  us  one  nation  instead  of  many 
states.  The  merchant,  instead  of  being  dependent  upon 
the  protection  of  many  states  in  which  he  does  business, 
depends  upon  the  power  of  Congress  to  protect  him.  Goods 
which  pass  through  various  states,  instead  of  being  taxed 


180  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

upon  entering  or  leaving  each  state,  are  entirely  free  from 
such  restrictions.  A  traveler  is  not  compelled  to  stop  at 
each  state  line  to  have  all  of  his  papers  and  baggage  exam- 
ined; he  can  travel  freely  from  one  part  of  the  country  to 
another.  Because  the  national  government,  instead  of  the 
states,  regulates  interstate  commerce,  it  is  possible  to  carry 
on  business  on  a  large  national  scale. 

The  War  Power. — The  war  power  of  Congress  is  also 
very  great.  Congress  has  the  right  to  declare  war  and  to 
do  everything  necessary  to  carry  on  war  successfully.  It 
can  raise  armies *and  equip  them,  build  navies,  provide  for 
the  training  and  education  of  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  in 
fact  do  practically  anything  that  will  aid  in  winning  a  war. 
How  great  is  this  power  may  be  seen  from  the  declaration 
of  war  with  Germany.  In  this  declaration  it  was  stated 
that  Congress  pledged  the  entire  resources  of  the  country 
to  the  carrying  on  of  the  war.  During  the  war.  Congress 
controlled  the  food  supply,  operated  the  railroads,  built 
ships,  and  established  training  camps  for  officers  in  nearly 
every  college  in  the  land.  Under  the  war  power,  also, 
Congress  may  set  up  a  military  government  in  any  country 
that  is  conquered  by  the  United  States.  After  we  secured 
the  island  of  Porto  Rico  in  1898,  for  instance,  a  military 
government  was  set  up  and  was  continued  for  some  little 
time. 

Other  Powers  of  Congress. — We  have  discussed  the 
power  over  naturalization  sufficiently  elsewhere.  Among 
other  powers  of  Congress  that  we  shall  not  have  time  to 
discuss  fully  are  the  powers  over  currency,  weights  and 
measures,  and  patents  and  copyrights.  Congress  makes 
laws  in  regard  to  these  and  many  other  matters,  for  the 
benefit  and  welfare  of  the  entire  nation. 


THE  LEGISLATIVE  POWER  OF  THE  NATION        181 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Review  the  reasons  given  in  Ciiapter  XXTV  in  regard  to 
the  custom  of  having  a  two-house  legislature.  With  these  in  mind 
you  will  be  able  to  answer  the  following  questions : 

(a)  Why  were  two  houses  of  Congress  established? 

(6)  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  difference  in  qualifications  as  to 
age  and  residence,  between  members  of  the  two  houses? 

(c)  Why  must  every  bill  be  passed  by  both  houses  before  it 
becomes  a  law? 

2.  Examine  a  history  of  the  United  States  to  learn  why  all 
the  states  are  allowed  the  same  number  of  senators,  while  the 
number  of  representatives  varies  according  to  population. 

3.  Explain  how  it  is  that  the  Senate,  though  much  smaller 
than  the  House  of  Representatives,  has  become  more  influential. 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  powers  given  to  Congress  in  Article  1, 
Section  S,  of  the  Constitution,  expressing  these  in  j^our  own  lan- 
guage. Exph^in,  in  each  case,  why  the  power  was  given  to  Con- 
gress rather  than  to  the  individual  states. 

5.  Who  are  the  senators  from  your  state?  How  many  repre- 
sentatives has  your  state?  ^\^lo  is  the  representative  from  your 
district? 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
THE  JUDICIAL  POWER  OF  THE  NATION 

Necessity  for  Federal  Courts. — Why,  we  may  ask,  is 
it  necessary  for  the  national  government  to  have  a  system  of 
courts,  when  the  state  does  so  much  in  protecting  its  people 
from  fraud,  injustice,  and  crime?  There  are  several  rea- 
sons why  federal  courts  are  necessary.  Suppose  two  states 
were  disputing  with  each  other  regarding  a  boundary  line. 
It  is  evident  that  neither  of  these  states  would  believe  that 
the  courts  of  the  other  state  would  be  unprejudiced  in  set- 
tling the  dispute.  They  would,  however,  trust  the  national 
court  to  give  them  justice.  Again,  if  a  citizen  of  California 
owed  a  citizen  of  Washington  a  sum  of  money,  the  citizen 
of  Washington  might  believe  that  he  would  be  discrimi- 
nated against  if  he  brought  his  suit  in  a  California  court. 
The  California  citizen  might  feel  the  same  way  about  trust- 
ing the  Washington  court.  Both  of  them  would  know, 
however,  that  the  national  court,  having  no  interest  one 
way  or  the  other  in  the  matter,  would  give  them  a  fair  trial. 

It  would  not  look  well  if  foreign  ambassadors,  ministers, 
or  consuls  should  be  compelled  to  bring  their  lawsuits  in 
state  courts  or  to  be  sued  by  state  courts.  They  represent 
their  governments  and  should  be  treated  with  as  great  re- 
spect as  though  they  really  were  the  foreign  governments. 
Such  a  respect  would  make  it  necessary,  therefore,  that  they 
should  sue  or  be  sued  in  a  court  representing  the  whole 
United   States. 

182 


THE  JUDICIAL  POWER  OF  THE  NATION         183 

Let  us  suppose,  again,  that  the  United  States  govern- 
ment were  suing  a  citizen.  It  would  not  be  very  dignified 
for  the  nation  to  have  to  ask  a  state  court  to  hear  its  suit. 
The  state  court  might  refuse  permission  to  bring  suit,  and 
even  if  it  did  so,  it  might  be  prejudiced. 

Suppose  that  a  person  broke  a  law  of  the  United  States. 
It  surely  would  not  do  for  the  national  government  to  de- 
pend, for  the  enforcement  of  that  law,  upon  the  state  courts. 
In  case  the  states  did  not  wish  to  enforce  the  law,  or  refused 
to  do  so,  people  would  soon  feel  that  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  need  not  be  respected.  Unless  we  had  federal  courts, 
the  United  States  laws  would  be  differently  interpreted  in 
different  states,  thus  leading  to  much  confusion  and  injus- 
tice. 

For  these  reasons  and  some  others,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
national  government  as  well  as  the  states  to  have  courts. 

Cases  Decided  in  the  Federal  Courts. — The  next  ques- 
tion that  we  may  ask  is,  "What  kinds  of  cases  come  before 
the  United  States  courts?"  All  the  kinds  of  cases  that 
have  been  mentioned  in  this  chapter  may  be  tried  by  federal 
courts;  that  is,  all  cases  between  states,  all  cases  affecting 
representatives  of  foreign  governments,  and  all  disputes 
where  the  national  government  is  one  of  the  parties  to  the 
suit.  The  federal  courts  may  hear  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction;  that  is,  cases  in  regard  to  ships 
which  sail  upon  waters  controlled  by  the  national  govern- 
ment, or  in  regard  to  the  debts  or  financial  dealings  of  such 
ships,  the  conduct  of  officers  and  sailors  belonging  to  them, 
etc.  They  also  decide  cases  between  a  state,  or  the  citizens 
thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

Besides  these  cases,  any  case  arising  under  the  Consti- 
tution, the  laws,  or  treaties  of  the  United  States  may  be 


184  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

tried  in  the  federal  courts.  A  few  illustrations  will  show 
how  cases  come  into  the  federal  courts  in  this  way.  The 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  prohibits  any  state  from 
denying  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction — that  is,  under 
its  control — the  ec^ual  protection  of  its  laws.  If  any  state 
should  pass  a  law  saying  that  all  voters  who  had  not  been 
born  in  the  state  must  pay  a  tax  of  one  dollar  a  year  before 
they  could  vote,  while  all  who  had  been  born  in  the  state 
were  exempted  from  this  tax,  such  a  law  could  not  be  en- 
forced. A  man  might  sue  the  state  in  a  federal  court,  claim- 
ing that  in  being  required  to  pay  a  dollar,  while  his  neighbor 
was  exempted,  he  was  deprived  of  equal  protection  of  the 
laws.  The  court  would  decide  that  this  was  true,  antl  that 
the  law  was  not  valid  because  it  conflicted  with  the  federal 
Constitution. 

Let  us  consider  a  case  arising  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States.  A  federal  statute  might  provide  that  no 
adulterated  food  should  be  shipped  from  one  state  into  an- 
other. A  federal  pure  food  inspector  finds  that  the  A.  B.  C. 
Preserve  Company  is  shipping  from  Kansas  City  to  Denver 
"strawberry  jam"  which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  largely 
composed  of  apples.  The  case  will  be  brought  into  the 
federal  court  to  find  out  if  the  law  really  has  been  broken. 
If  it  has,  the  federal  courts  will  determine,  according  to  law, 
what  the  punishment  will  l^e. 

A  case  might  arise  under  a  treaty,  if  the  United  States 
had  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  agreeing  to  prohibit  the 
manufacture  of  phosphorus  matches,  and  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  were  found  manufacturing  them. 

The  Supreme  Court. — Just  as  in  the  state  governments 
there  are  various  courts  for  various  purposes,  so  there  are  in 
the   national    government.      At   the   head    of   the   judicial 


THE  JUDICIAL  POWER  OF  THE  NATION 


185 


system  of  the  United  States  stands  the  Supreme  Court. 
This  court  is  composed  of  a  chief  justice  and  eight  associate 
justices.  Any  six  of  them  may  constitute  a  quorum  and 
so  render  a  vahd  decision. 

This  court  has  jurisdiction  over  two  classes  of  cases^ 
that  is,  the  authority  to  hear  and  decide  them:  namely, 


The  United  States  Supreme  Court  meets  in  this  room, 
of  the  judges  at  the  right  of  the  room. 


Notice  the  seats 


those  cases  that  come  to  it  directly  and  those  cases  that 
come  by  way  of  appeal  from  the  lower  courts.  In  the  first 
class  of  cases  are  all  those  affecting  ambassadors,  consuls, 
and  other  public  ministers  of  foreign  powers  and  cases  in 
which  a  state  is  a  party.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  these  cases 
should  come  before  the  highest  court  in  the  land  immedi- 
ately, since  one  class  deals  with  representatives  of  other 


186  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

nations,  and  the  other  with  states.  If  a  person  thinks  that 
some  lower  court  has  not  granted  him  a  right,  privilege, 
or  immunity  that  he  should  have  under  the  Constitution, 
laws,  or  treaties  of  the  United  States,  he  can,  under  certain 
conditions,  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  lower  court  and 
Jhave  his  case  heard  in  the  Supreme  Court. 

Circuit  Courts  of  Appeals. — Below  the  Supreme  Court 
are  nine  circuit  courts  of  appeals,  each  having  jurisdiction 
in  one  of  the  nine  circuits  into  which  the  United  States  is 
divided.  From  two  to  four  judges  are  appointed  in  each 
circuit,  according  to  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done.  They 
hold  sessions  in  various  cities,  at  which  they  hear  appeals 
from  the  lower  federal  courts.  In  many  cases  their  decisions 
are  final,  and  no  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  is  allowed. 

District  Courts. — The  entire  territory  of  the  United 
States,  including  Alaska,  Porto  Rico,  and  Hawaii,  is  divided 
into  eighty-three  judicial  districts.  Each  state  constitutes 
at  least  one  district,  and  some  of  the  larger  and  more  popu- 
lous states  have  several  districts.  For  example.  New  York 
has  four  and  California  has  two.  Usually  one  judge  is  ap- 
pointed for  each  district.  These  district  courts  hear  cer- 
tain cases  arising  under  the  Constitution,  laws,  and  treaties 
of  the  United  States,  and  several  other  classes  of  cases. 
They  also  hear  appeals  from  state  courts  where  a  federal 
question  is  involved. 

Special  Courts. — Besides  these  courts,  the  United  States 
has  a  few  courts  for  the  hearing  of  special  cases,  which  in- 
clude the  court  of  claims  and  the  court  of  customs  appeals. 

The  Judicial  Department. — This  system  of  federal 
courts,  with  the  necessary  judges  and  other  officials,  is 
known  as  the  judicial  system  of. the  United  States;  and 
the  power  to  judge  cases  given  to  the  courts  under  the  Con- 


THE  JUDICIAL  POWER  OF  THE  NATION  187 

stitution  is  known  as  judicial  power.  Like  the  government 
of  the  states,  the  federal  government  is  divided  into  three 
departments,  legislative,  judicial,  and  executive.  In  Chap- 
ter XXXV  we  learned  of  the  work  of  the  legislative  de- 
partment and  we  shall  examine  the  executive  department  in 
the  next  chapter. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

L  Explain  the  necessity  for  federal  courts. 

2.  What  kinds  of  cases  come  before  the  federal  courts?  Show 
that  state  courts  are  not  in  a  position  to  deal  properly  with  such 
cases. 

3.  Why  would  it  not  be  advisable  to  leave  to  the  states  the  power 
of  enforcing  the  national  Constitution,  laws,  or  treaties? 

4.  What  is  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States?  What 
kinds  of  cases  does  it  hear? 

5.  Explain  the  work  of  the  circuit  courts  of  appeals. 

6.  What  is  the  work  of  the  district  courts?  Why  are  so  many 
of  these  courts  needed? 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 
THE  EXECUTIVE  POWER  OF  THE  NATION 

The  President. — The  authority  to  see  that  laws  are 
obeyed  and  plans  carried  out  is  called  executive  power. 
The  executive  power  of  the  United  States  is  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  President,  who  is  assisted  by  a  group  of  men 
called  a  cabinet. 

The  President  of  the  United  States  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  four  years.  No  President  has  ever  served  for  more  than 
two  terms,  though  there  is  no  legal  reason  to  prevent  longer 
service.  The  first  President,  George  Washington,  retired 
to  private  life  at  the  end  of  his  second  term,  and  the  custom 
which  he  estalilished  has  never  been  broken. 

Duties  of  the  President. — The  President  is  given  several 
very  important  duties  and  powers.  He  is  commander  in 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States.  He  may 
make  treaties  with  foreign  nations — though  the  Senate  is 
expected  to  advise  him  in  this  work,  and  the  treaties  are 
not  vaUd  unless  indorsed  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  Senate. 
He  may  nominate  ambassadors,  consuls,  and  ministers 
to  foreign  countries,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  other 
officers,  and  if  the  Senate  approves  his  nominations,  he 
may  appoint  these  persons  to  office. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  President  to  inform  Congress  con- 
cerning public  affairs,  and  to  ask  it  to  consider  plans  and 
measures  which  he  believes  would  be  of  benefit  to  the  coun- 
try.    In  case  there  is  need  for  legislative  action  at  a  time 

188 


THE  EXECUTIVE  P0A\T:R  OF  THE  NATION       189 

when  Congress  is  not  in  session,  the  President  may  call  a 
special  session.  Before  acts  of  Congress  become  laws, 
they  are  sent  to  the  President  for  his  signature;  if  he  returns 
any  bill  to  Congress  with  objections,  it  cannot  become  a  law 
unless  two  thirds  of  the  members  of  both  houses  vote  for  it. 

The  Cabinet  and  the  Departments. — The  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  does  not  make  definite  arrangements 
for  a  cabinet;  but  those  who  wrote  it  certainly  understood 
that  the  President  would  need  assistants  to  manage  the 
various  departments  of  executive  work,  for  in  Article  II, 
Section  2,  we  find  the  words,  "He  may  require  the  opinion, 
in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive 
departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of 
their  respective  offices." 

Congress  has  passed  acts  at  various  times,  arranging  for 
several  departments,  each  of  which  has  a  chief  official.  The 
heads  of  all  the  departments  are  chosen  by  the  President, 
and  it  is  their  duty  not  only  to  carry  out  the  laws  and  plans 
made  by  Congress,  but  to  give  the  President  advice  and  help. 

The  cabinet  at  present  consists  of  ten  members:  Secre- 
tary of  State,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War, 
Attorney  General,  Postmaster  General,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
Secretary  of  Commerce,  and  Secretary  of  Labor.  Each  one 
of  these  manages  a  department  which  performs  great  public 
services.  We  shall  look  briefly  at  some  of  these  services. 
Of  course,  it  will  be  impossible  to  remember  them  all,  and 
it  is  not  necessary  to  do  so. 

The  Department  of  State  has  charge  of  the  foreign 
relations  of  the  United  States.  It  contains  divisions,  or 
bureaus,  devoted  to  Latin-American  affairs,  Mexican 
affairs.  Far  Eastern  affairs,  Near  Eastern  affairs,  etc.     It 


190  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

contains  a  Diplomatic  Bureau  and  a  Consular  Bureau, 
which  aid  the  President  in  selecting  men  to  represent  the 
United  States  abroad,  and  perform  various  other  functions 
in  connection  with  the  diplomatic  service.  The  Depart- 
ment of  State  also  keeps  the  official  records  of  the  United 
States  and  publishes  the  laws. 

The  Treasury  Department  cares  for  the  money  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States.  It  has  charge  of  collecting  reve- 
nues and  of  coining  money.  The  work  of  caring  for  public 
health,  the  United  States  life  saving  service,  and  the  secret 
service  work  are  managed  by  this  department. 

The  War  Department  is  in  charge  of  military  affairs. 
There  are  many  subdivisions  within  the  department,  each 
devoted  to  some  special  branch  of  work,  as  quartermaster's 
service,  military  engineering,  ordnance,  engineering  in 
rivers  and  harbors,  etc. 

The  Department  of  Justice  has  charge  of  the  work  of 
prosecuting  certain  offenders  against  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  also  of  giving  the  President  legal  advice  in  re- 
gard to  questions  of  public  law.  This  department  handles 
applications  for  pardons,  supervises  and  controls  federal 
prisons,  and  does  much  other  work  of  like  nature. 

The  Post  Office  Department  and  its  work  have  already 
been  studied  in  Chapter  XXXI,  so  we  shall  not  need  to 
discuss  it  here. 

The  Navy  Department  has  charge  of  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  government  vessels,  shipyards,  and 
docks,  and  the  naval  service  in  general.  Because  of  our 
great  expanse  of  seacoast  and  our  island  possessions,  it  has 
been  generally  felt  during  the  last  few  decades  that  the 
United  States  needs  a  large  navy;  and  the  navy  has  conse- 
quently been  expanded  very  rapidly.    Its  development  has 


THE  EXECUTIVE  POWER  OF  THE  NATION        191 

recently  been  checked  in  the  interests  of  world  peace,  as  we 
shall  learn  in  a  later  chapter. 

The  Department  of  the  Interior  has  charge  of  a  good 
deal  of  very  important  work.  It  manages  the  distribution 
of  public  lands,  the  reclamation  service,  the  national  park 
service,  Indian  affairs,  pensions,  patents,  education,  and 
various  other  lines  of  activity. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  carries  on  the  valuable 
work  of  gathering  and  distributing  information  upon  many 
subjects  of  importance  to  the  farmer.  It  manages  the 
Weather  Bureau  and  a  Bureau  of  Markets,  whose  object 
is  to  help  producers  to  find  markets  for  their  crops.  The 
forest  service  and  the  work  of  developing  public  roads  are 
also  undertaken  by  this  department. 

The  Department  of  Commerce,  as  its  name  implies,  is  es- 
tablished to  encourage  and  help  the  trade  of  the  country. 
It  includes  a  bureau  of  foreign  and  domestic  commerce,  a 
lighthouse  bureau,  a  bureau  of  navigation,  a  bureau  of  fish- 
eries, etc.  This  department  also  has  charge  of  taking  the 
census  every  ten  years. 

The  Department  of  Labor  is  intrusted  with  the  work  of 
studying  lalwr  conditions,  of  publishing  useful  information 
in  regard  to  them,  and  of  working  to  improve  them.  This 
department  has  charge  of  the  naturalization  service  and  of 
the  United  States  employment  service.  It  also  includes  a 
Children's  Bureau,  which  has  published  valuable  material 
upon  the  proper  care  and  treatment  of  children,  and  similar 
topics. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Name  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  United  States. 

2.  Can  you  explain  why  both  the  President  Knd  the  Senate 
must  take  part  in  arranging  treaties  with  foreign  countries? 


192  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

3.  Why  should  power  be  given  to  the  President  to  call  special 
sessions  of  Congress? 

4.  When  was  the  latest  special  session  of  Congress  called?  What 
measures  did  it  consider?    • 

5.  What  is  a  cabinet?  What  are  the  duties  of  cabinet  mem- 
bers?   Why  are  so  many  executive  officers  needed? 

6.  Make  a  written  list  of  the  cabinet  officers  and  the  depart- 
ments which  they  represent.  Find  the  names  of  the  cabinet  mem- 
bers at  the  present  time,  and  add  these  to  the  list.  Under  each 
department  write  some  of  its  chief  functions.  The  neatest  and 
best  list  may  be  fastened  upon  the  wall  for  reference. 


CHAPTER   XXXVIII 
NEW  PROBLEMS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT 

New  Government  Problems. — As  time  passes,  the  federal 
government  finds  new  problems  constantly  arising.  To- 
day it  faces  many  important  undertakings  which  were 
hardly  dreamed  of  in  the  time  of  Washington  and  Jeffer- 
son.   Let  us  look  at  a  few  of  these. 

Road  Building. — In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  grow- 
ing interest  in  the  question  of  good  roads.  People  wish  to 
travel  in  automobiles  through  all  parts  of  the  country  and 
to  send  loaded  automobile  trucks  long  distances.  This  is 
impossible  unless  there  are  good  roads  in  every  state.  Real- 
izing the  value  of  good  roads  for  travel  and  commerce  in 
times  of  peace,  and  for  the  moving  of  men  and  military 
supplies  in  time  of  war,  the  federal  government  has  under- 
taken to  aid  the  states  m  building  highways. 

It  does  this  in  three  ways.  Sums  of  money  are  given 
to  states  which  will  appropriate  a  given  amount  of  their 
own  funds  for  road  building,  so  that  the  roads  are  paid 
for  by  state  and  nation  acting  together.  The  federal  gov- 
ernment also  prepares  specifications  as  to  the  nature  of  the 
roads,  in  order  that  they  may  be  of  good  quality,  able  to 
bear  heavy  traffic,  and  built  to  last  for  years.  To  prevent 
carelessness  or  dishonesty  in  building  the  roads,  federal  in- 
spectors are  supplied,  whose  work  it  is  to  see  that  the  high- 
ways meet  the  specifications. 

Many  states  have  already  accepted  the  help  of  the  federal 

193 


194  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

government.  Therefore,  we  may  hope  within  a  few  years 
to  find  a  magnificent  system  of  highways  running  through- 
out the  country. 

Public  Education. — For  many  years  the  federal  govern- 
ment has  assisted  in  the  work  of  public  education,  by  main- 
taining a  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington,  with  a  com- 
missioner of  education  at  its  head.  The  chief  work  of  this 
bureau  has  been  to  gather  and  publish  valuable  information 
concerning  educational  affairs.  This  information  has  been 
distributed  to  educational  authorities  and  others  interested 
in  studying  such  questions,  and  it  has  been  very  useful  in  help- 
ing and  guiding  those  who  plan  the  work  of  the  public  schools. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  give  federal  money  and  help  to 
the  states  in  improving  and  developing  their  educational 
systems,  and  in  providing  special  schools  for  the  reeduca- 
tion of  disabled  soldiers  and  others  who  need  particular 
kinds  of  training  to  enable  them  to  support  themselves. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act  of  1917  provides  for  the  appro- 
priation of  certain  sums  of  money  from  the  national  treas- 
ury for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  states  and  cooperating 
with  them  under  certain  conditions  "in  paying  the  salaries 
of  teachers,  supervisors,  and  directors  of  agricultural  sub- 
jects, and  teachers  of  trade,  home  economics,  and  industrial 
subjects,  and  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  of  agricultural, 
trade,  industrial,  and  home  economics  subjects."  This 
cooperation  between  nation  and  state  assures  the  steady  de- 
velopment of  industrial  and  vocational  education. 

Americanization. — During  the  great  war,  the  federal  gov- 
ernment found  itself  confronted  with  new  educational  prob- 
lems. It  was  discovered  that  large  numbers  of  Americans 
are  unable  to  read  and  write,  and  that  many  immigrants 
who   have   Hved   in   this   country  for   years   cannot   even 


NEW  PROBLEMS  OF  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT       195 

speak   English  and  do   not  understand  our  principles  of 
government. 

As  we  know,  a  democratic  government  demands  educated 
citizens.  The  federal  authorities  took  immediate  steps  to 
educate  the  illiterate  English-speaking  men  in  the  training 
camps,  and  to  teach  the  English  language  to  those  who  did 


In  this  Americanization  class,  the  students  are  being  taught  the  English 
language,  and  American  manners  and  customs.  This  will  help  to  train 
them  for  intelligent  citizenship. 


not  understand  it.  The  men  who  were  in  the  camps  are 
only  a  small  number  of  the  men  and  women  who  need  such 
training,  and  an  effort  is  being  made  to  reach  the  others. 
Federal  and  state  authorities  are  working  hand  in  hand  to 
stamp  out  illiteracy,  to  teach  our  language  and  our  stand- 
ards to  immigrants,  and  to  induce  them  to  become  natural- 
ized as  soon  as  possible.     This  latter  work  is  known  as 


196  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Americanization;  and  it  may  be  expected  to  produce  ex- 
tremely good  results  in  making  us  a  truly  united  people, 
cooperating  for  the  same  great  purposes. 

Employment  Service. — Another  problem  which  has 
grown  up  during  the  last  few  years,  and  particularly  since 
the  great  war,  is  that  of  federal  employment  service.  Much 
has  already  been  done,  and  more  will  be  done  in  the  future, 
to  keep  all  parts  of  the  country  informed  about  conditions 
of  work  and  supplies  of  labor  everywhere,  and  to  assist  those 
who  need  work  to  reach  places  where  they  can  secure  it. 

In  these  and  many  other  ways,  our  national  government 
is  working  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  people.    Its  services  have 
always  been  very  great,  but  they  are  constantly  becom- 
ing greater,  as  modern  conditions  bring  new  needs. 
FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  Why  has  the  national  government  undertaken  the  work  of 
helping  the  states  to  construct  good  roads? 

2.  Explain  the  methods  by  which  the  government  helps  in 
providing  good  roads. 

3.  Of  what  advantage  would  it  be  to  all  citizens  if  good  high- 
ways ran  through  all  parts  of  the  country? 

4.  Why  do  city,  state,  and  nation,  all  join  in  promoting  public 
education? 

5.  What  is  the  work  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education? 

6.  Learn  all  that  you  can  about  the  federal  government's  work 
for  the  reeducation  of  disabled  soldiers. 

7.  Give  the  chief  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 

8.  Explain  the  meaning  of  Americanization  and  learn  all  you 
can  about  this  work. 

9.  Is  the  work  of  the  federal  employment  bureaus  of  benefit  to 
anyone  beside  laborers?  If  so,  to  whom?  Explain  your  reasons 
for  this  statement. 

10.  How  is  it  that  the  work  of  our  national  government  has  grown 
so  much  since  the  Constitution  was  adopted?  Is  this  growth  likely 
to  continue,  or  not?    Explain  your  answer. 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 
THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT 

Our  Varied  Citizenship. — Owing  to  the  fact  that  our 
great  country  has  been  very  Hberal  in  permitting  immigra- 
tion from  many  other  lands,  our  nation  today  is  composed 
of  men  and  women  of  every  race.  Some  have  Hved  in  the 
United  States  only  a  short  time;  some  are  descended  from 
many  generations  of  American  citizens.  Many  still  cling 
to  certain  ideas,  habits,  and  customs  of  their  original  homes 
in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Fundamental  Principles  of  Democracy. — Since  these 
various  types  of  people  compose  one  nation,  and  since  they 
must  cooperate  in  carrying  on  a  democratic  government, 
it  is  very  important  that  all  shall  understand  the  principles 
of  our  government.  We  have  already  seen  that  much  is 
being  done  to  teach  American  ideals  and  standards  to  all 
who  dwell  among  us.  Of  course,  it  would  be  ridiculous  to 
try  to  make  all  persons  think  alike  on  every  subject,  and  it 
would  be  opposed  to  the  meaning  of  liberty;  but  there  are  a 
few  fundamental  principles  on  which  we  must  agree  if  we 
are  to  have  a  democratic  government. 

For  example,  we  must  agree  that  governments  should  be 
conducted  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  people,  and  not  for  the 
power  and  glory  of  a  few.  We  must  agree  that  the  will  of 
the  people  shall  be  carried  out;  and  that  if  there  are  differ- 
ences of  opinion,  the  will  of  the  majority  shall  prevail.  We 
must  agree  that  rioting,  murder,  and  all  other  uses  of  vio- 

197 


198  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

lence  by  discontented  minorities  must  be  sternly  suppressed, 
for  there  is  no  excuse  for  violent  methods  in  a  country  where 
political  liberty  is  so  great  as  in  the  United  States.  We 
must  agree  that,  as  improvements  in  our  laws  or  our 
methods  of  government  are  needed  from  time  to  time,  the 
people  shall  demand  these  improvements  in  peaceable  and 
orderly  ways.  We  must  agree  that,  since  the  officials  who 
govern  us  are  chosen  by  the  people  or  the  representatives 
of  the  people,  it  is  the  people  who  are  really  responsible 
for  good  government.  Whatever  our  individual  differences 
may  be,  if  we  all  cherish  these  principles  we  shall  be  able 
to  make  even  greater  national  progress  in  the  future  than 
we  have  done  in  the  past. 

The  Best  Type  of  Citizens. — Since  the  responsibility  for 
good  government  rests  upon  the  people,  who  choose  their 
own  leaders,  it  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  best 
type  of  government  is  impossible  without  the  best  type 
of  citizens.  In  order  to  make  democratic  government 
thoroughly  efficient  and  good,  in  every  sense  of  the  word, 
what  qualities  must  be  found  in  the  people? 

First  of  all,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the  people  must  be 
educated,  so  that  they  will  understand  what  they  are  doing, 
will  know  what  measures  are  for  their  welfare,  will  be  able 
to  choose  good  officials,  and  will  not  be  misled  by  dishonest 
politicians.  Next,  they  must  be  unselfish,  ready  to  work 
for  the  benefit  of  their  fellow  citizens,  even  though  this  may 
take  time  from  their  personal  pursuits.  They  must  be 
public-spirited,  so  that  their  first  thought  about  any  pro- 
posed measure  will  be,  "Is  this  for  the  general  welfare?" 
rather  than,  "How  does  this  affect  me?" 

Loyal  Citizens. — One  more  quality  is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  success  of  popular  government — loyalty.     Early  in 


THE  PEOPLE  AND  THE  FEDERAL  GOVERNMEXT     199 

our  study  of  government  we  saw  that,  in  order  for  a  common 
undertaking  to  be  carried  on  successfully,  it  is  necessary 
for  those  who  are  displeased  with  any  measure  to  submit 
to  it  until  they  are  able  to  have  it  changed  in  a  regular  and 
orderly  manner.  Loyalty  does  not  demand  unquestioning 
obedience  to  law,  but  it  does  demand  obedience  to  law.  It 
means  a  feeling  of  union  with  all  one's  fellow  citizens; 
a  desire  to  cooperate  with  them  for  the  good  of  everyone; 
and  a  wilHngness  to  submit  to  the  will  of  the  majority,  even 
when  one  believes  them  to  be  mistaken,  until  one  has  per- 
suaded them  to  a  different  view.  In  a  country  where  free 
speech  is  permitted  and  all  adults  may  vote,  there  is  no 
excuse  for  violent  opposition  to  the  government  or  resist- 
ance to  law,  even  when  a  law  seems  unjust  and  oppressive; 
for  the  remedy  lies  in  the  hands  of  the  people  themselves. 
The  loyal  citizen  will  seek  to  improve  his  governmental 
system  whenever  this  is  necessary;  but  he  will  not  be 
tempted  to  suppose  that  rebellion  is  better  than  persuasion. 
He  will  not  only  submit  to  law,  but  he  will  take  an  active 
interest  in  the  making  of  law,  and  will  watch  his  represen- 
tatives carefully  to  see  that  they  carry  out  the  will  of  the 
people  for  whom  they  are  acting.  The  loyal  citizen  feels 
love  and  pride  toward  his  government;  not  the  foolish  pride 
that  refuses  to  see  anything  good  in  other  cities,  states, 
or  nations,  but  the  true  patriotism  which  means  a  determi- 
nation to  do  all  in  one's  power  to  make  one's  government 
the  best  possible  agent  for  the  service  of  all  the  people. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

I.  Why  is  it  necessary  that  those  who  wish  to  live  together 
under  a  democratic  government  should  agree  on  certain  prin- 
ciples?   "Wliat  would  be  the  result  if  only  a  few  persons  agreed  on 


200  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

any  principle  of  government,  and  the  whole  nation  were  divided 
into  small  groups,  each  of  which  disagreed  with  all  the  other  groups? 
Is  it  necessary  that  all  people  should  agree  on  every  point?  Ex- 
plain. 

2.  Name  all  the  principles  you  can  on  which  you  believe  that 
American  citizens  should  agree.  Give  your  reasons  for  each  state- 
ment. 

3.  Where  should  the  blame  be  placed  if  a  democratic  government 
is  not  so  efficient  as  it  ought  to  be?    Explain. 

4.  What  are  the  necessary  qualities  of  a  good  citizen? 

5.  Write  on  one  of  these  topics:  The  Ideal  American  Citizen; 
Who  is  Responsible  for  Our  Government? 


CHAPTER   XL 
POLITICAL   PARTIES   AND   ELECTIONS 

Reasons  for  Political  Parties. — It  is  practically  impos- 
sible to  get  a  large  body  of  people  to  agree  absolutely  regard- 
ing any  work  that  ought  to  be  done  or  the  methods  that 
should  be  used.  This  accounts  for  the  existence  of  parties, 
since  parties  consist  of  people  joined  together  for  carrying 
out  certain  policies  which  they  believe  to  be  right.  People 
who  beheve  in  a  particular  policy  regarding  what  the  gov- 
ernment ought  to  do,  organize  an  association,  or  party,  in 
order  to  accomplish  their  ends.  Thus,  the  people  who 
consider  a  high  tariff  necessary  for  the  business  welfare  of 
the  country  may  organize  a  party  and  try  to  elect  enough 
people  to  Congress  to  pass  laws  which  will  provide  for  a 
high  tariff;  and  there  may  be  another  organization  of  those 
who  believe  that  it  will  be  to  their  interest  and  the  interest 
of  the  country  to  have  a  low  tariff  or  no  tariff  at  all.  People 
may  believe  that  the  most  essential  thing  for  the  welfare  of 
the  country  is  to  have  all  public  utilities  and  other  large 
businesses  controlled  by  the  national  government.  These 
people  may  likewise  organize  a  party  to  carry  out  their 
views.  We  can  thus  see  that  because  people  believe  dif- 
ferently regarding  governmental  policy,  they  will  attempt 
to  secure  enough  votes  to  elect,  to  the  legislative  and  other 
branches  of  the  government,  people  who  will  carry  their 
policies  into  effect. 

History  of  Political  Parties. — Although  the  forefathers 

201 


202  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

who  established  our  government  did  not  believe  in  parties 
and  tried  in  every  way  to  discourage  them,  yet  because  of 
differences  in  opinion  they  were  inevitable.  Even  in  the 
Constitutional  Convention  there  were  two  distinct  parties: 
those  who  believed  that  the  states  should  be  subordinate 
to  the  Union  and  who  wished  a  strong  central  government, 
and  those  who  believed  that  the  national  government  should 
be  given  as  little  power  as  possible  and  that  the  states 
should  be  superior  to  the  national  government.  It  will  be 
impossible  in  this  brief  work  to  tell  the  history  of  the  polit- 
ical parties,  but  in  the  library  you  can  probably  find  books 
that  will  give  good  accounts  of  party  development. 

The  principal  parties  in  the  United  States  at  the  present 
time  are  the  Republican,  the  Democratic,  and  the  Socialist. 

The  Republican  Party. — The  Republican  party  grew 
up  in  the  middle  of  the  past  century,  and  in  1860  elected 
Lincoln  to  the  presidency.  During  the  Civil  War  this 
party  drew  to  itself  all  who  believed  in  the  maintaining  of 
the  Union,  the  upholding  of  the  Constitution,  a  high  tariff, 
and  homesteading  in  the  West.  The  successful  outcome  of 
the  war  left  the  Republican  party  very  strong.  During  the 
war  it  had  found  it  necessary  to  levy  high  tariffs  in  order 
to  pay  war  expenses.  This  policy  was  continued  after  the 
war  and  so  drew  to  this  party  the  support  of  the  large  busi- 
ness and  manufacturing  interests  of  the  country.  Although 
this  tariff  policy  has  come  to  be  less  of  an  issue  than  for- 
merly, 5^et  even  today  it  constitutes  the  chief  line  of  differ- 
ence between  the  Republican  and  Democratic  parties,' 
at  least  as  far  as  policy  is  concerned. 

The  Democratic  Party. — The  Democratic  party  after 
the  Civil  War  was  composed  largely  of  those  who  believed 
in  a  low  tariff;  and  generally  speaking,  its  members  repre- 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  AND  ELECTIONS  203 

sented  the  agricultural  interest  not  only  of  the  South  but 
also  to  quite  a  large  extent  of  the  West  and  the  Middle  West. 
If  we  should  take  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  mark  all 
the  states  red  that  in  1916  went  Democratic  and  mark  all 
the  states  blue  that  went  Republican,  we  could  see  more 
clearly  perhaps  than  in  any  other  way  what  was  the  issue 
between  the  two  greatest  parties  in  the  United  States:  The 
states  that  are  marked  red,  it  will  be  seen,  are  the  Southern 
and  the  Western  states,  most  of  which  are  largely  agricul- 
tural states.  The  states  marked  blue  are  the  great  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  states.  The  agricultural  states 
do  not  wish  a  high  tariff,  because  they  have  goods  which 
they  wish  to  sell  abroad,  such  as  cotton  and  tobacco;  and 
in  exchange  they  desire  to  obtain  manufactured  goods  from 
Europe  as  cheaply  as  possible.  A  high  tariff  will  make 
them  pay  much  more  for  these  goods  than  otherwise.  The 
manufacturing  states,  on  the  other  hand,  are  interested  in 
having  a  high  tariff  to  protect  their  manufactured  goods 
from  competition  with  foreign-made  goods. 

The  Socialist  Party. — The  Socialist  party,  which  vir- 
tually took  its  present  form  in  1900  as  a  result  of  the  union 
of  the  Socialist-Labor  and  the  Social-Democratic  parties, 
demands  certain  great  economic  and  political  changes.  It 
believes,  according  to  its  platform,  in  the  public  ownership 
of  railroads,  telegraphs,  and  telephones,  and  in  the  national 
ownership  of  forests,  mines,  oil,  and  other  natural  resources. 
It  also  believes  that  the  control  of  all  industry  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  people  instead  of  in  the  hands  of  capitalists; 
and  that  the  state  should  insure  workers  against  unemploy- 
ment, and  should  provide  old  age,  sickness,  and  accident 
pensions.  It  wishes  to  have  the  United  States  Senate  abol- 
ished, to  elect  by  popular  vote  all  judges  for  short  terms  of 


204  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

office,  and  to  take  away  from  the  Supreme  Court  the  right 
to  declare  laws  unconstitutional. 

The  Prohibition  Party. — The  Prohibition  party,  which 
held  its  first  national  convention  in  1872,  has  worked  pri- 
marily for  the  prohibition  of  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  in- 
toxicating liquors.  Although  this  party  was  never  able  to 
secure  a  single  vote  in  the  electoral  college,  it  has  accom- 
plished its  main  aim — the  national  prohibition  of  liquor 
— by  the  eighteenth  amendment,  which  was  adopted  in 
1919. 

Aim  of  the  Party. — In  case  a  party  can  elect  a  sufficient 
number  of  persons  to  Congress  to  secure  a  majority  of 
votes,  and  can  also  elect  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
it  will  be  able  to  secure  legislation  that  will  carry  out  its 
policies,  and  will  also  be  able  to  enforce  this  legislation. 
The  political  party,  therefore,  devotes  its  principal  work 
to  seeing  that  its  adherents  are  elected  to  office. 

Party  Organization. — In  order  to  be  sure  that  a  party 
will  be  al)le  to  elect  members  of  Congress,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  party  shall  organize  everywhere  in  the  United 
States.  We  thus  have  national  political  organizations  of 
some  sort  throughout  the  country,  even  in  small  places. 
The  members  of  each  party  hold  public  meetings  to  explain 
their  policies,  distribute  literature,  advertise  in  newspapers 
and  periodicals,  and  use  every  available  means  of  persuading 
others  to  join  them. 

Presidential  Conventions. — Each  party  sends  represen- 
tatives from  every  state  to  a  national  convention,  at  which 
the  party's  "platform"  or  statement  of  principles  is  written, 
and  its  candidates  for  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice 
President  are  selected.  The  makers  of  the  Constitution 
did  not  wish  to  have  these  officers  elected  by  parties,  so 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  AND  ELECTIONS  205 

they  provided  that  each  state  should  appoint  persons  known 
as  electors,  who  should  choose  the  President  and  the  Vice 
President.  (See  the  Constitution,  Article  II,  Sections  2  and 
3;  also  the  twelfth  amendment.)  They  thought  that  these 
electors  would  vote  for  able  men  without  regard  to  party. 
This  plan,  however,  did  not  work  out.  Each  party  nomi- 
nates as  electors  persons  who  can  absolutely  be  depended  on 
to  vote  for  those  whom  the  party  has  nominated  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice  President.  Therefore,  although  the  people 
do  not  vote  directly  for  these  officials,  they  know  that  the 
electors  will  cast  their  votes- for  the  party  candidates;  so 
in  choosing  electors,  the  people  are  really  choosing  the 
President  and  Vice  President.  The  hopes  of  our  forefathers 
that  the  electoral  college,  as  the  body  of  electors  is  called, 
would  be  free  from  party  influence  have  not  been  realized. 

National  Parties  in  Local  Elections. — Since  national 
parties  are  thoroughly  organized,  with  branches  every- 
where, their  members  work  to  elect  not  only  the  national 
officers,  but  also  the  state  and  local  officers.  While  it  may 
seem  absurd  to  select  a  man  for  mayor  because  he  believes 
in  or  does  not  believe  in  a  high  tariff,  yet  it  is  inevitable 
that  party  politics  will  continue  to  play  considerable  part 
in  state  and  local  government.  The  electing  of  persons  to 
state  and  local  office  because  of  national  politics  may  be 
harmful,  as  candidates  are  often  helped  by  the  party  to  win 
such  offices  simply  as  a  reward  for  faithful  work  in  the 
national  campaign,  and  not  because  they  are  the  best  per- 
sons for  the  positions. 

Special  Issues  in  Local  Elections. — On  the  other  hand, 
the  difficulty  of  organizing  and  continuing  parties  which 
really  represent  state  or  local  issues  is  so  very  great  that 
it  is  not  ordinarily  attempted.     "Reform,"   "fusion,"  or 


206  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

"independent"  parties  seldom  outlive  one  or  two  campaigns. 
This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  issues  in  the  state  or  local 
governments  are  not  so  long  continuing  or  so  well-defined 
as  national  issues.  They  vary  from  time  to  time.  For 
instance,  in  one  election  the  municipal  issue  might  be 
whether  or  not  the  city  should  own  or  operate  its  own 
electric  light  plant.  Another  year  the  issue  might  be  bonds 
for  waterworks,  while  in  a  third  year  the  issue  might  be 
the  strict  enforcement  of  certain  laws.  Evidently  no  one 
of  these  issues  would  form  the  basis  of  a  permanent  party, 
but  it  might  be  so  important  at  the  time  as  to  cause  the 
best  citizens  to  vote  as  they  thought  right,  regardless  of  party. 

There  is  a  growing  tendency  to  pay  little  attention  to 
party  lines  in  city  affairs,  and  to  vote  for  the  best  candidate 
regardless  of  his  ideas  on  national  politics.  This  will, 
doubtless,  lead  to  better  and  more  efficient  municipal  gov- 
ernment. 

Principles  Advocated  by  the  Party. — Political  parties,  in 
the  national  government,  and  also  to  a  certain  degree  in  the 
state  governments,  have  several  important  functions  to  per- 
form. To  a  large  extent  they  select  issues  or  principles  and 
present  them  to  the  electorate.  This  may  be  true  of  a 
rather  weak  party  as  well  as  one  that  is  very  strong.  The 
Prohibition  party,  for  instance,  clearly  presented  one  issue 
to  the  voters  of  the  United  States  for  years  until  it  was 
finally  adopted.  The  Populist  party,  although  of  short  life, 
presented  many  issues  to  the  voters  of  the  United  States. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Progressive  party.  Every 
party,  of  course,  endeavors  by  means  of  united  action  to 
secure  the  adoption  of  its  principles. 

Party  Responsibility  for  Officers. — To  quite  a  large  ex- 
tent, also,  the  parties  stand  in  the  position  of  bondsman  to 


POLITICAL  PARTIES  AND  ELECTIONS  207 

the  candidates  they  select.  If  John  Smith  is  nominated 
for  office  by  the  Democratic  party,  that  party  practically 
guarantees  that  he  is  the  proper  man  for  the  place.  In 
case  he  is  elected  and  fails  to  do  efficient  work,  the  party 
suffers  at  the  polls  at  the  next  election,  provided  he  holds 
an  office  of  sufficient  importance  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the 
people. 

Educating  the  Voter. — Through  extensive  campaigns 
waged  all  over  the  United  States  by  speakers,  the  press, 
magazines,  and  cartoons,  the  political  parties  do  a  good 
deal  of  work  in  the  field  of  public  education.  If  issues  were 
more  clearly  defined,  and  if  people  voted  more  generally 
on  issues  instead  of  by  habit  or  tradition,  evidently  much 
more  education  could  be  given  the  people  in  this  way. 

The  Party,  a  Useful  Tool. — At  all  events,  the  party  is  a 
definite  part  of  our  political  system. .  Whether  we  make  it 
a  useful  organ  in  the  accomplishment  of  our  ends  depends 
largely  upon  ourselves.  If  we  will  join  the  party  really 
representing  most  fully  our  political. beliefs,  and  then  work 
with  it  toward  the  advancement  of  ends  which  we  consider 
good  and  proper,  we  shall  make  of  the  party  a  most  useful 
tool  in  our  growing  democracy. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  How  do  you  account  for  the  establishment  of  parties? 

2.  What  principles  does  each  of  the  main  parties  stand  for? 

3.  Why  is  it  necessary  for  national  parties  to  organize  all  over 
the  United  States? 

4.  What  is  the  work  of  a  national  political  convention? 

5.  Are  parties  necessary?    Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

6.  What  should  be  our  attitude  toward  the  party? 

7.  Why  do  experts  in  municipal  government  encourage  inde- 
pendent voting  in  city  elections,  regardless  of  party  lines? 


CHAPTER   XLI 
INTERNATIONAL   RELATIONS 

Entangling  Alliances. — In  his  farewell  address  as  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  George  Washington  warned  the 
people  of  this  country  to  beware  of  entanghng  alliances 
with  European  nations.  As  we  were  far  removed  from 
these  nations  by  a  large  ocean,  so  that  we  had  little  interest 
in  their  affairs,  and  as  we  had  all  the  work  we  could  well  do 
in  opening  and  developing  our  great  western  country,  this 
was  sound  advice  at  the  time  when  it  was  given. 

Closer  Connections  with  Foreign  Nations. — Since  that 
day,  however,  enormous  changes  have  taken  place.  We 
have  grown  from  a  weak  nation,  composed  of  thirteen  states 
all  more  or  less  jealous  of  one  another  and  with  a  population 
of  only  about  four  millions,  to  a  great  unified  nation  of  over 
a  hundred  and  five  millions,  made  up  of  people  from  all 
European  nations  and  distributed  across  a  large  continent. 
Steam  and  electricity  have  shortened  the  distance  between 
us  and  Europe  from  months  to  days,  as  far  as  travel  is  con- 
cerned; while  as  for  communication,  all  over  the  United 
States  we  know  at  our  breakfast  tables  each  morning  wha^ 
happened  in  Europe  the.  day  before.  No  longer  is  our  in 
terest  confined  to  the  settling  of  the  West,  for  that  h^ 
largely  been  settled. 

Commercial  Relations. — Today,  as  never  before,  v  e 
depend  on  all  the  rest  of  the  world  for  things  we  need — '  'U 
Ireland  for  linen,  on  France  for  millinery  and  art  works,    »n 

208 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  209 

England  for  certain  manufactured  goods,  on  China  for  teas 
and  rice,  on  South  America  for  coffee,  rubber,  meat,  and 
hides,  on  the  islands  of  the  sea  for  certain  fruits,  and  on 
Japan  for  silks.  Not  only  are  we  dependent  on  these  lands 
for  articles  we  need,  but  we  also  have  goods  to  exchange 
for  these  articles.  No  longer  will  the  home  market  satisfy 
our  business  men;  they  wish  the  markets  of  the  world. 

Diplomatic  Relations. — Now  whether  we  like  it  or  not, 
these  commercial  relationships  with  the  rest  of  the  world 
make  it  necessary  for  us  to  enter  into  other  relationships  as 
well.  If  our  merchants  are  seeking  trade  in  Japan,  South 
America,  or  any  other  part  of  the  world,  they  wish  to  be 
assured  that  their  lives  and  property  will  be  safe  there. 
This  means  that  a  treat}^  must  be  established  between  the 
United  States  and  the  foreign  country,  arranging  for  trade 
rights,  legal  protection,  and  other  things  necessary  to  the 
welfare  and  safety  of  people  doing  business  in  foreign  lands. 
Ambassadors  or  ministers  must  be  exchanged  in  order  that 
each  nation  may  have  an  official  representative  in  the  other 
country  concerned.  Consuls  must  be  sent  from  each  coun- 
try to  the  principal  cities  of  the  other,  to  look  after  the  rights 
and  interests  of  their  fellow  countrymen  who  may  be  there. 
Thus  commercial  relations  lead  to  diplomatic  relations. 

The  Family  of  Nations. — Even  if  our  nation  wished  to 
keep  entirely  to  itself,  it  would  not  be  able  to  do  so.  The 
World  War  has  demonstrated  that  it  is  quite  impossible  for 
us  not  to  be  affected  very  seriously  by  warfare  in  Europe, 
no  matter  how  much  we  may  desire  to  remain  neutral. 
For  these  and  other  reasons,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  give 
up  our  policy  of  "no  entangling  alliances"  and  "splendid 
isolation."  We  must  definitely  face  the  fact  that  we  are  a 
part  of  the  family  of  nations  and  have  our  share  of  respon- 


210  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

sibility  for  making  the  world  free  from  war  or  the  fear  of 
wa. ,  and  also  for  helping  to  improve  the  social  and  economic 
conditions  of  other  peoples.  Just  as  no  man  in  the  com- 
munity can  say,  "It  is  none  of  my  business  if  others  fight, 
are  dirty,  are  poor,  or  have  diseases,"  so  it  is  no  longer  pos- 
sible for  any  nation  to  say  the  same  thing.  Commerce  and 
communication  have  made  the  people  of  the  world  depend- 
ent on  one  another.  The  problem  confronting  our  nation, 
therefore,  is  how  we  can  best  help  to  make  a  world  where 
there  is  no  war,  no  poverty,  no  misery,  no  disease,  and  no 
conditions  which  help  to  tear  us  all  down.  This  problem 
is  not  ours  alolae.  Every  civilized  country  is  facing  it  to- 
day, and  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  solve  it.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  of  these  is  the  League  of  Nations. 

The  League  of  Nations.— At  the  conclusion  of  the  World 
War,  the  treaty  which  was  signed  by  most  of  the  nations 
concerned,  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  contained 
the  plan,  or  covenant,  for  a  League  of  Nations  with  per- 
manent headquarters  at  Geneva,  Switzerland.  This 
League  of  Nations  is  intended  to  prevent  wars  by  removing 
their  causes  so  far  as  possible,  by  providing  for  the  peace- 
able solution  of  disputes  which  ordinarily  lead  to  war, 
and  by  undertaking  to  help  any  member  of  the  League 
against  attacks  from  other  nations.  The  United  States  did 
not  become  a  member  of  the  League  of  Nations,  but  it 
is  well  understood  abroad,  as  well  as  at  home,  that  our 
earnest  desire  is  to  avoid  war;  and  our  influence  in  world 
affairs  is  felt  to  be  on  the  side  of  peace.  Though  we  are  not 
included  in  the  League  of  Nations,  an  American,  Dr.  John 
Bassett  Moore,  is  a  member  of  the  Court  of  International 
Justice  established  by  the  League  to  settle  disputes  between 
various  countries. 


INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS  211 

The  Disarmament  Conference. — In  1921  the  United 
States  invited  several  of  the  most  important  nations  to 
send  representatives  to  a  conference  at  Washington,  to 
consider  the  question  of  disarmament.  This  conference  met 
in  November  of  that  year.  It  was  found  necessary  to  Hmit 
the  conference  to  the  discussion  of  naval  disarmament, 
leaving  the  question  of  land  disarmament  for  future  settle- 
ment. 

The  work  of  the  conference  was  embodied  in  several 
important  treaties,  which  were  signed  by  the  representatives 
of  the  various  countries  affected  by  them.  The  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Japan  signed  a  treaty 
pledging  themselves  to  respect  one  another's  possessions  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  to  build  no  more  fortifications  there. 
These  nations,  and  Italy,  signed  a  treaty  which  binds  them 
to  refrain  from  using  submarines  to  attack  merchant  ships 
in  time  of  war,  and  from  using  poison  gas.  Important 
treaties  in  regard  to  China's  relations  with  other  nations, 
especially  with  Japan,  were  signed. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  several  treaties  which 
were  entered  into  at  this  conference  is  the  "five-power 
treaty,"  which  binds  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Japan,  and  Italy  to  reduce  their  navies  according 
to  the  specifications  contained  in  the  agreement  and  to 
limit  future  navy  building  very  strictly. 

The  so-called  "naval  holiday"  which  this  treaty  is  de- 
signed to  bring  about  will,  if  faithfully  observed,  have  two 
desirable  results.  In  the  first  place,  it  will  mean  a  consider- 
able lightening  of  the  burden  of  taxation  which  the  building 
of  large  navies  has  placed  upon  the  people  of  the  three 
great  naval  powers  (the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and 
Japan).     Its  more  important  result,  however,  will  be  the 


212  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

removal  of  the  fear  that  one  nation  desires  to  conquer 
another  by  means  of  its  naval  strength,  since  the  reduced 
size  of  the  various  navies  suits  them  for  defense  rather  than 
conquest.  As  fear  of  attack  is  one  of  the  motives  leading 
people  into  war,  the  removal  of  this  fear  will  be  a  great 
step  toward  the  establishment  of  permanent  peace. 

America's  Position  Today. — It  is  evident  that  we  occupy 
a  very  different  position  in  the  world,  from  that  which  we 
held  at  the  beginning  of  our  life  as  a  nation.  Our  vast 
territory,  our  large  population,  and  our  great  national 
wealth  have  given  us  an  importance  which  we  did  not 
formerly  possess.  Our  influence  in  world  affairs  is  now  so 
great  that  we  must  make  a  special  effort  to  use  it  well.  We 
must  endeavor  to  set  an  example  of  democracy  at  its  best, 
and  to  lead  the  world  forward  toward  the  goal  of  universal 
peace   and   social   justice. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  What  did  President  Washington  mean  by  "entangling  alli- 
ances" ?  Give  reasons  why  his  advice  to  avoid  participation  in 
European  affairs  was  sound  at  the  time. 

2.  Explain  fully  how  circumstances  have  changed  so  that  it  is 
now  impossible  for  us  to  keep  entirely  to  ourselves. 

3.  Why  did  we  enter  the  World  War?  Read  everything  you 
can  find  which  will  help  you  to  answer  this  question. 

4.  What  do  you  conclude  as  to  the  possibility  of  avoiding  all 
share  in  the  concerns  of  other  nations? 

5.  What  is  a  League  of  Nations?  In  order  to  make  it  a  success, 
what  must  be  the  attitude  of  all  the  great  nations,  and  of  the  indi- 
vidual citizens? 

6.  Read  in  magazines  and  books  a  full  account  of  the  work  of 
the  naval  disarmament  conference  at  Washington  in  1921. 


CHAPTER   XLII 
THE   FUTURE   OF   AMERICA 

Forces  That  Control  our  Future. — If  we  try  to  look 
ahead  and  to  imagine  the  future  of  our  country,  we  must 
first  take  into  consideration  certain  great  forces  which  have 
controlled  our  national  life  to  a  very  large  extent  ever  since 
we  became  a  nation,  and  which  will  control  us  even  more 
in  the  future.  These  forces  ma}^  be  said  to  be  the  enormous 
development  in  the  use  of  machinery,  the  growth  of  rapid 
communication,  the  improvement  and  the  spread  of  educa- 
tion, the  development  of  the  democratic  spirit,  and  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  spirit  of  cooperation.  All  these  factors 
have  played  and  are  playing  a  significant  role  in  the  devel- 
opment of  all  the  countries  in  the  world,  but  in  no  place, 
perhaps,  more  than  in  the  United  States. 

Development  of  Machinery. — In  a  very  real  way,  the 
thousands  of  machines  that  we  have  developed  give  us  the 
equivalent  of  millions  and  millions  of  untiring  hands  work- 
ing for  us  day  and  night.  While  other  countries  also  use 
a  great  deal  of  machinery,  perhaps  no  other  land  can  use 
it  so  profitably  as  the  United  States.  Because  we  have  not 
had  relatively  such  a  large  population  as  man}^  European 
countries,  and  our  scale  of  wages  has  been  very  high,  we 
have  developed  more  machines  than  other  countries  to 
do  the  work  of  men.  Moreover,  our  large  tracts  of  agricul- 
tural land  make  farming  by  machinery  profitable;  whereas 
in   some  of  the  smaller   countries  of   Europe  with  their 

213 


214  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

tiny  plots  of  land,  such  things  as  steam  or  traction  plows, 
thrashing  machines,  binders,  and  harvesting  machinery 
could  not  be  used  to  advantage. 

By  the  proper  use  of  machinery,  in  our  large  land  of 
wonderful  resources  it  is  possible  for  us  to  produce  enough 
so  that  every  single  person  can  live  in  health,  comfort,  and 
happiness.  With  these  millions  of  iron  hands  toiling  con- 
tinually for  us,  we  can  produce  enough  goods  of  all  sorts  to 
abolish  poverty  and  to  do  away  with  the  bad  conditions 
that  cause  disease.  Thus  to  a  large  extent  we  could  prevent 
crime  and  misery,  for  most  crime  and  misery  are  caused  by 
poverty  and  disease. 

Development  of  Rapid  Communication. — The  second 
great  factor  that  we  shall  consider  is  a  result  of  the 
first.  Because  of  the  development  of  steamships,  railroads, 
airships,  telephones,  telegraphs,  wireless,  and  radio,  the 
world  is  for  all  practical  purposes  very  much  smaller  than 
when  this  country  was  first  established.  It  takes  scarcely 
longer  to  go  from  end  to  end  of  the  United  States  now  than 
it  took  our  fathers  to  travel  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia 
or  from  Philadelphia  to  Washington.  We  can  telephone 
to  any  place  in  the  United  States  within  a  few  moments. 
By  the  use  of  radio  and  telephone,  people  in  the  Catalina 
Island  off  the  California  coast  can  exchange  direct  con- 
versation with  people  on  a  steamship  far  off  the  Atlantic 
coast.  With  radio,  people  all  over  the  country  can  listen 
to  lectures  and  concerts  in  New  York,  Chicago,  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  many  other  places.  Such  possibilities  of  com- 
munication were  undreamed  of  a  half-century  ago. 

Learning  to  Know  One  Another. — But  why,  you  may 
ask,  is  this  great  development  in  communication  a  large 
factor  in  the  future  of  our  country?     In  the  first  place, 


THE  FUTURE  OF  AMERICA  215 

we  are  now  linked  up  with  all  the  rest  of  the  world  in  a  way 
that  we  have  never  been  before.  Every  morning  we  read 
what  is  happening  not  only  in  our  own  land,  but  in  every 
land  under  the  sun.  In  hundreds  of  magazines  we  see 
pictures  and  descriptions  of  other  peoples.  In  our  moving 
pictures  we  see  events  from  all  parts  of  the  world  that  hap- 
pened only  a  short  time  before.  When  we  become  ac- 
quainted with  people,  be  it  only  through  description  or 
picture,  we  soon  lose  our  fear  and  distrust  of  them  and  come 
to  understand  them  and  respect  them.  Because  of  the 
rapid  and  convenient  means  of  travel,  people  from  all  over 
the  world  are  knowing  one  another  better  than  has  ever 
been  possible  before  in  the  history  of  the  world.  This  will 
gradually  tend  to  draw  all  the  people  of  the  world  closer 
together  in  cooperation. 

Drawing  the  World  Together. — The  mighty  bands  of 
commerce  also  are  drawing  us  close  together.  We  need  the 
products  of  other  lands  in  order  to  live  our  lives  to  the  best 
advantage,  and  these  foreign  lands  need  our  products. 
Because  we  have  been  among  the  first  to  develop  these  won- 
derful new  inventions  of  communication,  we  shall  be  among 
the  first  to  be  interested  in  the  other  peoples  of  the  world 
and  to  know  and  understand  them.  Because  of  our  enor- 
mous wealth  resulting  from  our  natural  resources,  people 
have  come  here  from  all  lands;  they  form  a  close  bond  of 
union  between  our  country  and  other  countries.  Our 
wealth  enables  us  to  buy  largely  in  the  markets  of  other 
lands.  Our  extensive  manufactures  make  us  go  all  over  the 
world  seeking  markets.  Through  these  ways,  therefore,  we 
shall  be  among  the  first  to  know  the  people  of  all  the  world. 

For  all  these  reasons,  we  are  in  a  position  to  become  one 
of  the  great  leaders  in  the  Ufe  of  the  world.    America  should 


216  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

stand,  and  must  stand,  a  leader  in  the  future  development 
of  a  world  fit  for  everyone  to  live  in. 

Drawing  the  Nation  Together. — Rapid  communication 
is  also  a  most  important  factor  in  helping  us  as  a  nation  to 
work  together.  Does  anyone  suppose  that  without  all  the 
telephones,  telegraphs,  railroads,  automobiles,  and  airships 
which  we  employed  within  a  few  weeks  after  we  entered  the 
great  war,  we  could  have  united  so  quickly,  almost  as  one 
family?  Now  these  same  meanfe  of  communication  are 
helping  us  to  unite  in  carrying  on,  with  the  same  coopera- 
tion, the  works  of  peace. 

Development  of  Education. — Education  was  named  in 
the  beginning  of  this  chapter  as  one  of  the  great  factors  that 
will  influence  the  life  of  America  in  the  future.  How  will 
it  do  this?  As  we  become  better  educated,  we  shall  invent 
more  machinery  to  do  things  for  us;  and  as  we  have  seen 
before,  the  proper  use  of  machinery  tends  to  make  a  better 
and  higher  civilization.  Not  only  will  the  use  of  machinery 
help  us  to  make  more  products,  but  it  will  enable  us  to  have 
more  free  time  to  study,  travel,  and  play.  Education  will 
also  help  us  to  make  better  plans  for  our  industrial  life.  If 
everyone  were  well  educated,  we  could  undoubtedly  pro- 
duce much  more  than  we  can  at  present. 

But  education  will  help  us  in  other  ways,  too.  It  will 
help  us  to  understand  much  better  the  world  in  which  we 
live.  When  we  really  understand  the  causes  of  disease, 
poverty,  and  our  other  ailments,  we  shall  know  much  better 
how  to  fight  them.  When  we  understand  our  relationships 
with  one  another  better,  we  shall  be  able  to  work  together 
in  a  way  that  we  never  have  done  before.  The  better  edu- 
cated we  are,  the  easier  it  is  for  us  to  cooperate. 

The  Democratic  Spirit. — The  fourth  factor  of  profound 


THE  FUTURE  OF  AMERICA  217 

significance,  not  only  in  this  country  but  also  in  all  the 
world,  is  the  development  of  the  democratic  spirit.  This 
is  the  rapidly  developing  feeling  that  each  person  should  be 
free:  free  to  develop  all  his  powers  and  capabilities  through 
working  in  harmony  with  others.  If  we  stop  to  think 
about  it,  we  see  that  this  is  the  only  way  in  which  we  can 
be  free.  Am  I  more  free  when  I  take  a  gun  and  have  to 
protect  myself  all  alone,  or  when  I  cooperate  with  all  others 
in  protecting  society  by  helping  to  establish  courts,  police, 
and  other  means  of  protection?  Am  I  more  free  when  I 
have  to  depend  on  my  own  care  in  seeing  that  my  milk, 
meat,  and  canned  goods  are  pure,  or  when  I  contribute  a 
small  tax  to  the  national  government,  the  state  government, 
and  the  city,  and  they  look  after  all  these  things  for  me? 
Formerly  men  thought  only  of  living  under  a  government 
in  which  they  were  free  from  arbitrary  oppression  by  kings 
and  rulers.  Now  we  wish  to  be  free  also  from  all  those 
things  that  endanger  our  lives,  our  health,  or  our  welfare. 
But  freedom  from  these  things  can  come  only  through  co- 
operation. 

Cooperation:  Learning  to  Work  Together. — The  fifth 
and  perhaps  the  greatest  factor  that  will  influence  our 
future  is  the  factor  of  cooperation.  In  order  to  use  our 
wonderful  machinery  in  the  best  way,  we  must  learn  how 
to  cooperate.  Of  what  good  is  a  vast  machine  that  can 
turn  out  thousands  of  pairs  of  shoes  a  day,  if  because  of  con- 
flicts between  the  laborers  and  those  who  own  it,  the  machine 
is  idle?  Even  to  use  our  machinery  to  the  best  advantage, 
we  must  learn  how  to  work  together.  Because  of  our  edu- 
cation and  means  of  communication,  we  can  the  more  easily 
understand  one  another,  make  plans  on  a  larger  scale,  and  so 
develoD  cooperation. 


218  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

Cooperation  in  Government. — The  greatest  of  all  the 
agencies  of  cooperation  at  the  present  time  are  the  different 
units  of  government — the  city,  county,  state,  and  nation. 
It  is  largely  through  them  and  by  them  that  we  shall  be 
able  to  solve  the  problems  which  must  be  met  in  order  that 
we  may  live  peaceful,  healthful,  prosperous,  and  happy 
lives. 

What,  then,  do  we  owe  to  these  governments?  In  the 
first  place,  we  should  do  everything  in  our  power  to  make 
them  the  right  kind  of  machines  for  carrying  on  our  work. 
Just  as  a  machine  that  is  wrongly  planned,  not  carefully 
watched  and  guarded,  will  fail  to  do  good  work,  so 
governments  that  are  not  planned  properly  and  are  not 
carefully  controlled  by  the  citizens  will  fail  to  do  efficient 
work. 

We  must  give  our  loyal  support  to  our  country,  not  only 
in  times  of  war  but  also  in  times  of  peace.  This  means  that 
we  should  give  time  to  working  on  the  problems  which  must 
be  solved  in  government;  that  we  should  be  willing  to  take 
our  part  in  actually  carrying  on  government  if  we  are 
able  to  do  so;  that  we  should  study  the  problems  of 
government  so  as  to  learn  how  to  vote  properly  on  public 
questions. 

Our  Future. — Evidently,  then,  in  the  future  we  shall 
use  machinery  much  more  than  in  the  past.  This  will 
mean  not  only  the  production  of  more  goods,  but  the  setting 
free  of  time  and  energy  for  the  higher  things  of  life.  We 
shall,  through  development  in  the  means  of  communication, 
learn  more  and  more  how  to  appreciate  and  understand 
one  another,  and  so  we  shall  be  willing  to  cooperate. 
Through  development  in  education,  we  shall  become  able 
to  produce  more,  to  understand  and  solve  our  problems 


THE  FUTURE  OF  AMERICA  219 

better,  and  to  co()perate  in  carrying  on  great  enterprises 
for  human  welfare — great  enterprises  of  government. 

Need  of  Changes  in  Government. — Because  these  factors 
are  changing  our  hves  rapidly  and  changing  the  ways  that 
we  view  things,  it  may  perhaps  be  necessary  for  us,  from 
time  to  time,  to  make  changes  in  the  plan  of  government  of 
city,  state,  and  nation,  in  order  that  these  governments 
may  more  efficiently  do  the  work  required  of  them.  While 
we  should  not  make  changes  unless  we  see  clearly  that  they 
will  l)e  good  for  us,  yet  we  should  not  be  afraid  of  necessary 
improvements,  any  more  than  an  automobile  manufacturer 
is  afraid  to  make  a  change  if  he  is  sure  that  it  will  improve 
his  car.  We  should  do  as  our  ancestors  did  who  helped 
make  tiiis  country  what  it  is  today;  that  is,  we  should  make 
the  changes  that  arc  necessary  for  bettering  conditions  at 
the  present  time.  Let  us  always  remember  the  sound  advice 
of  Lord  Macaulay:  ''It  is  time  that  we  pay  a  decent  rever- 
ence to  our  ancestors,  not  by  doing  what  they  under  other 
circumstances  did,  but  by  doing  what  they  under  our  cir- 
cumstances would  have  done." 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

L  If  a  steam  plow  can  plow  ten  acres  a  day  while  a  man  and  a 
team  can  plow  only  two,  and  it  costs  no  more  to  run  the  plow  than 
to  feed  a  team  of  mules,  who  will  be  better  off,  the  man  with  the 
steam  plow  or  the  man  who  uses  the  mules?  What  does  this  show 
as  to  the  value  of  machinery? 

2.  Why  can  we  use  macliiner}^  to  much  better  advantage  than 
most  other  countries? 

3.  Point  out  three  ways  in  which  the  rapid  dcA-elopment  of  com- 
munication has  made  the  peoi)le  of  the  world  more  interested  in 
one  another's  business  than  formerly. 

4.  Try  discussing  an^'  subject  in  which  you  are  much   interested 


220  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

with  a  person  who  has  a  good  education  and  one  who  has  httle 
education.  Which  of  these  persons  is  the  more  free  from  prejudice, 
and  which  has  the  greater  sympathy  with  your  problem? 

5.  What    effect    has    education    upon    men's    attitude    toward 
people  of  other  lands? 

6.  Does  the  word    democracy    mean   only    the   right    to    vote? 
What  does  it  mean  to  you? 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP— A  PRIVILEGE  AND  A 
RESPONSIBILITY 

Who  Are  the  Citizens? — The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  declares  that  "All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in 
the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof, 
are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  state  in  which 
they  reside."  The  expression  "subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
thereof"  means  coming  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States.  If  the  ambassador  from  France  and  his  wife  should 
have  a  son  born  while  they  were  living  in  Washington,  this 
child  would  not  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  even 
though  born  here,  because  he  would  be  considered  to  come 
under  the  authority  of  France.  Most  persons  born  in  this 
country,  however,  are  subject  to  its  jurisdiction;  and  of 
course  when  persons  are  naturalized,  they  place  them- 
selves under  its  authority.  All  these  persons,  of  every 
race  and  age,  and  of  both  sexes,  are  citizens  of  the  United 
States. 

Citizens  as  Partners  of  the  Nation. — What  does  it  mean 
to  be  a  citizen?  First  of  all,  it  means  that  everyone  is  a 
partner  in  helping  the  nation  to  carry  out  its  great  prin- 
ciples of  freedom,  justice,  and  service.  Even  those  who 
are  too  young  to  help  decide  public  questions  can  aid  in  the 
work  which  must  be  done.  Children  as  well  as  grown 
people  did  a  great  deal  to  win  the  World  War;  they  are 
doing  a  great  deal  to  promote  public  health;  and  there  are 

221 


222  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

many  other  kinds  of  public  work  in  which  they  can  render 
valuable  services. 

Privileges  of  Citizens. — To  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  means  also  the  possession  of  certain  rights  and  priv- 
ileges. It  means  that  each  one  has  a  right  to  share  in  the 
services  given  by  the  government.     For  example,  any  citi- 


These  men  are  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States; 
that  is,  they  are  solemnly  promising  to  renounce  the  authority  of  all 
other  governments  and  to  accept  that  of  our  government. 

zen  may  receive  free  of  charge,  upon  his  request,  useful  liter- 
ature on  the  raising  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  methods  of 
canning  food  products,  the  care  of  children,  and  many  other 
topics.  Every  citizen  of  the  United  States  is  protected  in 
many  ways  by  the  laws  of  the  country.  Every  citizen 
shares  in  the  benefits  brought  about  by  federal  Pure  Food 
laws,  measures  restricting  immigration,  and  other  useful 
laws.     Every  citizen  has  the  right  to  his  own  religious 


AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP  223 

views,  to  free  speech,  and  to  many  things  for  which  people 
are  still  struggling  in  some  countries.  These  are  only  a  few 
of  the  rights  and  privileges  enjoyed  by  citizens  of  the  United 
States. 

Responsibilities  of  Citizens. — Every  citizen  has  re- 
sponsibilities as  well  as  privileges.  If  the  public  work  is 
to  be  done  well,  each  one  must  feel  responsible  for  learn- 
ing what  measures  are  right  and  desirable,  and  for  working 
to  see  that  these  measures  are  carried  out.  If  good  citi- 
zens refuse  to  take  this  responsibility,  there  are  always 
plenty  of  dishonest  and  undesirable  persons  who  will  quietly 
take  charge  of  public  affairs  and  manage  them  for  personal 
profit  rather  than  for  the  good  of  all. 

Each  citizen  is  responsible  for  keeping  before  himself 
and  before  others  the  ideal  of  progress.  No  human  insti- 
tution is  perfect;  and  as  conditions  change,  laws  and  public 
measures  must  be  changed  also.  While  we  look  to  the  great 
men  of  the  past  for  help  and  inspiration,  we  must  not  be 
misled  into  making  them  our  only  guides.  The  needs  of 
the  present  and  our  hopes  for  the  future  must  always  be 
kept  in  mind,  so  that  our  country  may  continue  to  be 
among  the  most  progressive  nations  of  the  world. 

Studying  Public  Questions. — In  order  to  exercise  our 
responsil)ilities  properly,  we  must  all  be  willing  to  devote  a 
part  of  our  time  to  public  affairs.  Public  questions  demand 
careful  study,  and  every  good  citizen  ought  to  examine 
such  questions  from  all  sides.  Even  those  too  young  to  vote 
should  do  this,  in  order  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  these  matters 
which  will  be  useful  later.  Everyone  who  is  privileged 
to  vote  should  regard  it  as  his  duty  to  exercise  this  privi- 
lege, for  he  must  remember  that  unless  the  people  take  part 
in  public   affairs,   there  can  be  no   real  democracy.     As 


224  EVERYDAY  CITIZENSHIP 

soon  as  good  citizens  neglect  public  matters,  they  fall  under 
the  control  of  dishonest  men,  who  are  always  seeking  an 
opportunity  to  place  themselves  in  power. 

Helping  the  Government. — Even  more  time  than  that 
devoted  to  the  study  of  public  questions  and  to  voting 
should  be  given  to  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citi- 
zenship. Whenever  the  government  needs  help,  whether 
in  conducting  a  baby-saving  campaign,  in  fighting  tuber- 
culosis, or  in  carrying  on  any  other  great  enterprise,  every 
citizen  should  be  willing  to  give  all  the  help  that  he  possibly 
can. 

How  Can  We  Make  America  a  Leader? — We  must 
always  remember  that  a  democratic  nation  is  not  a  ma- 
chine which  can  be  started  and  left;  it  is  a  partnership  in 
which  every  citizen  must  do  his  share  all  the  time.  It  is 
the  hope  and  the  cherished  vision  of  every  true  American 
to  see  his  country  a  leader  among  free  nations,  a  land  where 
liberty  and  justice  prevail,  where  each  citizen  has  the  op- 
portunity to  live  a  happy  and  useful  life,  and  where  the 
best  and  most  progressive  institutions  flourish.  But  it 
takes  hard  work  to  make  dreams  come  true,  and  the  loyal 
citizen  will  be  ready  to  do  his  share  of  the  work.  An  intelli- 
gent, interested,  helpful  body  of  citizens,  willing  to  cooperate 
for  the  good  of  all,  can  make  America's  future  even  greater 
than  her  splendid  past. 

FOR  STUDY  AND  DISCUSSION 

1.  When  is  a  person  a  citizen  of  the  United  States?  Are  citizens 
and  voters  the  same?    Explain. 

2.  Name  some  of  the  rights  of  citizens. 

3.  Name  some  of  the  duties  of  citizens. 

4.  Is  it  fair  to  ask  for  rights  and  privileges  if  we  refuse  to  carry 
out  our  duties?    Why? 


AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP  22.5 

5.  Can  a  democratic  country  succeed  if  citizens  are  selfish, 
lazy,  and  unconcerned  about  public  affairs?  Explain  your  answer, 
and  describe  the  results  of  such  an  attitude. 

6.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  think  of  progress?  Is  not  our  country 
great  and  rich  already? 

7.  What  do  you  think  of  the  so-called  good  citizen  who  refuses 
to  take  an  interest  in  politics  because  so  many  dishonest  and  selfish 
men  are  in  control?  Why  do  such  men  control  pohtics?  What 
is  the  remedy? 

8.  Why  do  public  questions  demand  study?  What  is  the  use 
of  looking  at  a  question  from  all  sides? 

9.  Why  should  citizens  aid  in  carrying  out  public  work? 

10.  What  do  you  want  America  to  be  in  the  future?  How  can 
you  show  that  this  wish  is  genuine? 

11.  Write  an  article  on  the  topic,  "My  Rights  and  My  Duties 
as  an  American  Citizen." 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR   OUTSIDE   READING 

General  Reference 

Beard,   Charles   A.,    American  Government  and   Politics,   Mac- 

millan,  1914. 
Beard,    Charles    A.,    Readings    in    American   Government    and 

Politics,  Macmillan,  1911. 
Leacock,    Stephen,    Elements    of    Political    Science,    Houghton 

Mifflin,  Revised  edition,  1920. 
Willoughby,  W.  F.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Government 

of  Modern  States,  Century,  1919. 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  The  State.     Special  Edition,  December,  1918, 

Heath. 

Local  Government 
Streets 

Munro,  W.  B.,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal  Adminis- 
tration, Macmillan. 

Police  and  Justice 

Fold,  L.  F.,  Police  Administration,  Putnam. 

Beard,  Charles  A.,  American  City  Government,  Century,  1912. 

Fire  Fighting  and  Prevention 

Munro,  W.  B.,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal  Adminis- 
tration, Macmillan. 

Health  and  Sanitation 

Hill,  H.  W.,   The   New  Public  Health,  Macmillan,  1916. 

The  Water  Supply 

Folwell,  A.  P.,  Water  Supply  Engineering,  Wiley,  1917. 

227 


228  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  OUTSIDE  READING 

Disposal  of  Garbage,  Sewage,  etc. 

Munro,  W.  B.,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal  'Adminis- 
tration, Macmillan. 
Baker,  M.  N.,  Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation. 

Public  Schools 

Dutton  and  Snedden,  The  Administration  of  Public  Education 
in  the   United  States,  Macmillan. 

Recreation  and  General  Welfare 

Lyie,  W.  T.,  Parks  and  Park  Engineering,  Wiley,  1916. 
Beard,  Charles  A.,  American  City  Government,  Century,    1912. 

The  Mayor-Council  Plan 

Munro,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  American  Cities,  Chap.  VIII, 
Macmillan. 

The  Commission  and  the  Commission-Manager  Plans 

Munro,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  American  Cities,  Chaps.  Ill, 
XII,  XV,  Macmillan. 

The  Township-County  Government 

Fairlie,  J.  A.,  Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Vil- 
lages, Century,  1906. 

Maxey,  C.  C,  County  Administration,  1919. 

King,  C.  L.  (Ed.),  County  Government,  Annals  of  the  American 
Academy,  Vol.  47,  1913. 

State  Government 

Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics,  Chaps.  XXII 
to  XXXII,  Macmillan. 

Munro,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  the  United  States,  Chaps. 
XXVII  to  XXXVI,  Macmillan. 

Mathews,  J.  M.,  Principles  of  American  State  Administration , 
Appleton,  1917. 

Holcombe,  A.  N.,  State  Government  in  the  United  States,  Mac- 
millan. 

Whipple,  G.  C,  State  Sanitation,  Harvard  University  Press. 

Jenks,  Edward,   The  State  and  the  Nation. 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  OUTSIDE   READING  229 

Party  Government  in  the  United  States 

Hadley,  A.  T.,  Undercurrents  in  American  Politics,  Yale  Uni- 
versity Press. 

Ray,  P.  0.,  Introduction  to  Political  Parties  and  Practical 
Politics,  Scribners. 

Woodburn,  J.  A.,  Political  Parties  and  Party  Problems  in  the 
United  States,  Putnam. 

The  Federal  Government 

Beard,   Charles  A.,    American    Government  and   Politics,   Mac- 

millan. 
Munro,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  the   United  States,  Macmillan. 
Young,  James  T.,  The  New  American  Government  and  Its  Work, 

Macmillan. 
Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commonwealth,  Macmillan. 
Fairlie,  J.  A.,  The  National  Administration  of  the   United  States, 

Macmillan. 
Ashley,  R.  L.,  The  American  Federal  State,  Macmillan. 
Yard,  R.  S.,  Book  of  National  Parks,  Scribners,  1919. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

PREAMBLE 

We,  the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  com- 
mon defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of 
liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Con- 
stitution for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE    I 

Section  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in' a 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives. 

Section  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members 
chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  electors 
in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  '  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their  re- 
spective numbers,  which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  num- 
ber of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years, 
and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.^  The 
actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the  first  meeting 
of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of 
ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of 
representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  least  one  representative ;  and  until  such  enumeration 
shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three ; 
Massachusetts,  eight ;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  one ; 
Connecticut,  five  ;  New  York,  six  ;  New  Jersey,  four  ;  Pennsylvania,  eight ; 
Delaware,  one  ;  Maryland,  six  ;  Virginia,  ten  ;  North  Carolina,  five  ;  South 
Carolina,  five  ;  and  Georgia,  three. 

1  See  the  Sixteenth  Amendment. 

2  See  the  Fourteenth  Amendment. 

280 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES        231 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the  execu- 
tive authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker,  and  other 
officers ;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six  years; 
and  each  senator  shall  have  one  vote.^ 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first 
election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes. 
The  seats  of  the  senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration 
of  the  second  year  ;  of  the  second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year  ; 
of  the  third  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may 
be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or 
otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive 
thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the 
legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall 
be  chosen. 

The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of  the  Senate, 
but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  president  pro 
tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice  President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments.  When 
sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside  :  and 
no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the 
members  present. 

Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to  re- 
moval from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor, 
trust,  or  profit  under  the  United  States ;  but  the  party  convicted  shall 
nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and 
punishment,  according  to  law. 

Section  4.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for 
senators  and  representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legis- 
lature thereof ;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or  alter 
such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such  meet- 
ing shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law- 
appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  5.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute 
a  quorum  to  do  business ;    but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to 

J  See  the  Seventeenth  Amendnaent. 


232       CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members, 
in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties,  as  each  house  may  provide. 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  mem- 
bers for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel 
&  member. 

Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to 
time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require 
eecrecy,  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  on  any  ques- 
tion shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  consent 
of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than 
that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  6.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a  compensa- 
tion for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  and 
breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at 
the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from 
the  same ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be 
questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was 
elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall 
have  been  increased,  during  such  time ;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  member  of  either  house  during  his  con- 
tinuance in  office. 

Section  7.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of 
Representatives ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments 
as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the 
Senate  shall,  before  it  becomes  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States ;  if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it, 
with  his  objections,  to  that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall 
enter  the  objection  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it. 
If  after  such  reconsideration,  two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass 
the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  house, 
by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two  thirds 
of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both 
houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persona 
voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house 
respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten 
days  (Sunday  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same 
shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by 
their  adjournment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of 
adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States; 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES       233 

and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being 
disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  prescribed 
in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Section  8.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes, 
duties,  imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common 
defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States ; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States ; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several  States 
and  with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the 
subject  of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States. 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix 
the  standard  of  weights  and  measures ; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current 
coin  of  the  United  States  ; 

To  establish  post-oflfices  and  post-roads ; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing,  for 
limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries ; 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas, 
and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules 
concerning  captures  on  land  and  water ; 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use 
shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy ; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces ; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union, 
suppress  insurrections  and  repel  invasions. 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining  the  militia  and  for 
governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers, 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  pre- 
scribed by  Congress ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such  district 
(not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States, 
and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by 
the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for 
the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  needful 
buildings ;  —  and 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into 


234       CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Con- 
stitution in  the  government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or 
officer  thereof. 

Section  9.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of 
the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  bo  prohibited 
by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight, 
but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten 
dollars  for  each  person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless 
when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to 
the  census  or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken.' 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue 
to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to, 
or  from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence  of  ap- 
propriations made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time 
to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States ;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the  consent 
of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any 
kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Section  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  con- 
federation ;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ;  emit  bills 
of  credit ;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of 
debts ;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  impost  or 
duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws ;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  impost, 
laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and 
control  of  the  Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage, 
keep  troops,  or  ships-of-war,  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or 
compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war, 
unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of 
delay. 

ARTICLE    II 

Section  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America.     He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four 

1  See  the  Sixteenth  Amendment. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES       235 

years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be 
elected,  as  follows : 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof  may 
direct,  a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and 
representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress ;  but 
no  senator  or  representative,  or  person  holding  any  office  of  trust  or  profit 
under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

The  electors '  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persona 
voted  for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each  ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and 
certify  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate.  The  president  of  the 
Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  there  be 
more  than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes, 
then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one 
of  them  for  President ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the 
five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  house  shall,  in  like  manner,  choose  the 
President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by 
States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum  for 
this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In 
every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice  President.  But  if  there 
should  remain  two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose 
from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice  President. 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and  the 
day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes ;  which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  States. 

No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States 
at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the 
office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen 
years  resident  within  the  United  States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said 
office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  President,  and  the  Congress  may 
by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability, 
both  of  the  President  and  Vice  President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then 
act  as  President ;  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly  until  the  disability 
be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

1  See  the  Twelfth  Amendment. 


236       CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  compensa- 
tion which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for 
which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period 
any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following 
oath  or  affirmation:  —  "I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faith- 
fully execute  the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the 
best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States." 

Section  2.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when 
called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States ;  he  may  require  the 
opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  depart- 
ments, upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices; 
and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offenses  against 
the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur ;  and 
he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate 
shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  ap- 
pointments are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  estab- 
lished by  law :  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such 
inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts 
of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen 
during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire 
at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

Section  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information 
of  the  state  of  the  Umon,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  meas- 
ures as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagree- 
ment between  them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may 
adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper ;  he  shall  receive  am- 
bassadors and  other  public  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be 
faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  4.  The  President,  Vice  President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  con- 
viction of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE   III 

Section  1.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in 
one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and 
inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at 


CONSTITUTIOISI    OF  THE  UNITED  STATES       237 

stated  times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation  which  shall  not  be 
diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Section  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and 
equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ;  —  to  all 
cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and  consuls ;  —  to  all 
cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  jurisdiction ;  —  to  controversies  to  which 
the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ;  —  to  controversies  between  two  or 
more  States ;  —  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State ;  i  —  between 
citizens  of  different  States ;  —  between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming 
lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens 
thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction.  In  all  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such 
exceptions  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  congress  shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury; 
and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have 
been  committed  ;  but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall 
be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Section  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in 
levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid 
and  comfort. 

No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two 
witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason,  but 
no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except 
during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  ^V 

Section  1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And 
the  Congress  may  by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts, 
records,  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Section  2.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges 
and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime,  who 
shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of 
the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up, 
to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein, 

*  See  the  Eleventh  Amendment. 


238        CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim 
of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

Section  3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this 
Union  ;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  any  other  State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more 
States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the 
States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules 
and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the 
United  States ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as 
to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Section  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this 
Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  invasion,  and  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive 
(when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE    V 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of 
the  Legislatures  of  two  thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention 
for  proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures 
of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths 
thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by 
the  Congress ;  provided  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to 
the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect 
the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the  first  article ;  and  that 
no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the 
Senate. 

ARTICLE    VI 

All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adoption, 
of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this 
Constitution,  as  under  the  confederation. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be 
made  in  pursuance  thereof ;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made, 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in 
the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members 
of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers, 
both  of  the  L^nited  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath 
or  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever 
be  required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United 
States. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES       239 

ARTICLE  VII 

The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for 
the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the 
same. 

AMENDMENTS 

Amendments  I-X  were  adopted  in  1791:  XI  in  1798;  XII  in  1804; 
XIII  in  1865  ;  XIV  in  1868 ;  XV  in  1870 ;  XVI  and  XVII  in  1913  ;  XVIII 
in  1919. 

ARTICLE    I 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or 
prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to 
petition  the  government  for  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE   II 

A  well-regulated  militia,  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE   III 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house,  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  law. 

ARTICLE    IV 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and 
effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated, 
and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or 
affirmation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the 
person  or  things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE    V 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous 
crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual 
service  in  time  of  war  and  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject 
for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be 
compelled  in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  to  be 
deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall 
private  property  be  taken  for  public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE   VI 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy 
and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 


240       CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously 
ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the 
accusation  ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him  ;  to  have  com- 
pulsory process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assist- 
ance of  counsel  for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE    VII 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact 
tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United 
States  than  according  to  the  rules  of  common  law. 

ARTICLE    VIII 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE    IX 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not  be  con- 
strued to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE   X 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  bj'-  the  Constitution,  nor 
prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to 
the  people. 

ARTICLE   XI 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend 
to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  any  of  the 
United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any 
foreign  state. 

ARTICLE   XII 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for 
President  and  Vice  President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  in- 
habitant of  the  same  State  with  themselves  ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots 
the  person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted 
for  as  Vice  President ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted 
for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice  President,  and  of  the 
number  of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit 
sealed  to  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Senate ;  —  the  president  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the 
votes  shall  then  be  counted ;  —  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;    and  if  no  person  have  such 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES       241 

majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding 
three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each 
State  having  one  vote  ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member 
or  members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon 
them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice  Presi- 
dent shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  Vice  President,  shall  be  the  Vice  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have 
a  majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall 
choose  the  Vice  President ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  num- 
ber shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitutionally  in- 
eligible to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice  President 
of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE   XIII 

Section  1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as  a 
punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted, 
shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  ap- 
propriate legislation. 

ARTICLE   XIV 

Section  1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States,  and 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of 
the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law 
which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States ;  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction 
the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  appointed  among  the  several 
States  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of 
persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right 
to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice 
President  of  the  United  States,  representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  or 
judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is 
denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged, 
except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representa- 
tion therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such 


242       CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress, 
or  elector  of  President  or  Vice  President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military, 
under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who  having  previously  taken 
oath  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a 
member  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of 
any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  en- 
gaged in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort 
to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  each 
house,  remove  such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  pubHc  debt  of  the  United  States,  au- 
thorized by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be 
questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or 
pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 
the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave ; 
but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE   XV 

Section  1.  The  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not 
be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of 
race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  ap- 
propriate legislation. 

ARTICLE   XVI 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes,  from 
•whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment  among  the  several  States, 
and  without  regard  to  any  census  or  enumeration. 

ARTICLE   XVII 

Section  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two 
senators  from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years ;  and 
each  senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  electors  in  each  State  shall  have 
the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the 
State  Legislature. 

Section  2.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State 
in  the  Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs  of  elec- 
tion to  fill  such  vacancies  :  Provided,  That  the  Legislature  of  any  State  may 
empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary  appointments  until  the 
people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the  Legislature  may  direct. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED^  STATES       243 

Section  3.  This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  aa  to  affect  the 
election  or  term  of  any  senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of  the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE   XVIII 

Section  1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the  manu- 
facture, sale,  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the  importation 
thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the  United  States  and  all  terri- 
tory subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  for  beverage  purposes  is  hereby 
prohibited. 

Section  2.  The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  concurrent 
power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

Section  3.  This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have  been 
ratified  as  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  Legislatures  of  the  sev- 
eral States,  as  provided  in  the  Constitution,  within  seven  years  from  the 
date  of  the  Bubmission  hereof  to  the  States  by  the  Congress. 

ARTICLE  XIX 

Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not 
be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account  of 
sex. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  the  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  ap- 
propriate legislation. 


INDEX 


Agricultural  colleges,  106 
Agriculture,  Department  of,  164, 
165,  191 

improved  methods  of,  164,  165 

Secretary  of,  189 
Allegiance,  oath  of,  222 
Alliances  with  foreign  nations,  208 
Amendments,     to     federal     Con- 
stitution, 173,  239 

to  state  constitutions,  97,  98 
Americanization,  65,  194-196 
Amusen:ents,  city  provisions  for, 

68,  69 
Appointments,  by  governor,  132, 
177 

by  President,  177,  188,  189 
Army  of  the  United  States,  144, 
145,  185 

control  of,  144,  145,  190 

size  of,  144-145 
Articles  of  Confederation,  138,  139 
Assembly,  state,  126 
Attorney    General,    federal,    189 

prosecuting,  123 
Autocracy,  3 
Automobile,  license  fees,  136 

Ballot,  88,  89 

Banks,   regulation  of,    101 
Bill  of  Rights,  95 
Birth  record,  42 
BHnd,  care  of,  99,  112 
Bonds,  government,  101,  168 
Borrowing    money,    by    govern- 
ment, 168,  169,  178 


Budget,  system,  169,  170 

law  of  1921,  169,  170 
Building,  code,  36 

inspection  of,  41 
Business,    regulation    by   govern- 
ment, 10,  96,  97,  101 

Cabinet,  189-191 

Canals,  construction  of,  97,   136 

Census,  191 

Charter  of  city,  72,  77,  78 

Children,  care  of,  100 

care  of  homeless,  110,  111 

care  of  wa^'ward,  9,  110 
Children's  Bureau,  11,  191 
Circuit  courts  of  appeals,  186 
Citizen,   definition  of,   221 

privileges  of,  222,  223 

responsibilities  of,  197-199,  223, 
224 
City,  affairs  controlled  by,  13,  14 

charter,  72,  77,  78 

council,  73 

courts,  121 

government,     by     commission- 
manager  plan,  81,  82 
by  commission  plan,  77-79 
by  mayor-council  plan,  73-76 

manager,  81,  82 

officers  of,  73,  77-78,  81,  82 

organization  of,  72-82 
Collection  of  taxes,  89 
Colleges,  106 

agricultural,  106,  107 

municipal,  64 


245 


246 


INDEX 


Commerce,  bureau  of,  191 

Department  of,  191 

foreign,  142,  143,  148,  149,  179, 
208,  209,  215,  216 

interstate,   143,   152,   153,    179, 
180 

national  control  of,  137,  138 

regulation  by  Congress,  178-180 

Secretary  of,  189 
Commission  form  of  city  govern- 
ment, 77-80 
Commissioner-Manager    plan    of 

city  government,  80-82 
Commissioner,  of  city,  77-81 

of  county,  89 

of  health,  39,  117 
Committees  in  Congress,  169 

in  state  assembly,  128-129 
Communication,   systems  of,    10, 

208,  214 
Community  centers,  69 
Concerts,  free,  66 
Confederation,  Articles  of,  138 
Conference  at  Washington,  211 
Congress,  continental,  138,  139 

members  of,  175 

powers  of,  144, 145, 175, 177-180 
Conservation,  need  for,  160,  161 

of  foiests,  160-162 

of  food,  145 

of  land,  163,  164 

of  minerals,  162,  163 

of  natural  resources,  160-165 
Constitution,  adoption  of,  140 

amendments  of,  97,    172,    173, 
239 

federal,  93,  171-173,  230 

state,  94-98 
Constitutional  Convention,  140 
Consular,  bureau,  190 

service,  209 


Continental  Congress,  138,139 
Convention,  Constitutional,  140 

Presidential,  204,  205 
Cooperation,  in  government,  217, 
218 

spirit  of,  213 
Copyrights,  180 

Corporations,    government    con- 
trol of,  96 

taxes  on,  135 
County,  clerk,  90 

courts,  87,  122 

government,  15,  16,  87-90 

jail,  87,  124,  125 

judicial  system  in,  87 

records,  90 

work  of,  87-90 
Course  of  study,  school,  60 
Courts,   cases  tried  in,    183,    184 

circuit,  122,  186 

city,  121 

civil,  30,  31 

county,  87,  122 

district,  122,  186 

federal,  182-187 

juvenile,  31,  122 

municipal,  121 

of  appeal,  186 

of  International  Justice,  210 

police,  30 

probate,  122 

special,  122,  186 

state,  120-122 

superior,  122 

supreme,  federal,  184-186;  state, 
122 

traflBc,  31 
Crime,  prevention  of,  19,  20,  26, 

27.  {See  Police.) 
Crippled,  care  of,  112 
Currency,  143,  180 


INDEX 


247 


Deaf,  care  of,  9,  1 12 
Death,  rate,  39,  42 

records,  42 
Debt,  national,  168,  169 
Defense,  national,  7,  139,  144-147 

under  Articles  of  Confederation, 
139 
Delinquents,  care  of,  110 
Democracy,  definition  of,  3 

fundamental  principles  of,  197, 
198 

spirit  of,  212,  213,  216,  217 
Democratic  party,   149,  202,  203 
Departments,     of     city     govern- 
ment, 19-82 

of  government,  95,  96 

of   national   government,    174- 
191 

of   state   government,    llS-134 

of  the  President's  cabinet,  181- 
191 
Desert  Land  Act,  164 
Diplomatic,  bureau,  190 

relations,  209 
Disarmament  Conference,  211 
Disease.    {See  Health). 
District  courts,  122,  186 
Divisions  of  government,    13,   18 
Duties,  167.     {See  Tariff.) 

Education,  boards  of,  62,  81,  105 
bureau  of,  9,  191 
compulsory,  60,  61 
course  of  study,  60 
exhibits  to  promote,  66 
federal  work  for,  194 
for  citizenship,  216 
for   the   handicapped,    112 
higher,  106 
in  fire  prevention,  37 
of  prisoners,  125 


Education,  professional,  106 

special  agencies  for,  64-66 

to  prevent  tuberculosis.  111,  112 

work  of  city  for,  59-66 

work  of  county  for,  87 

work  of  state  for,  96,  99,  105- 
107 
{See  Schools.) 
Elections,  boards  of,  88 

in  initiative  and  referendum,  129 

influence  of  parties  in,  204-207 

local,  205,  206 

of  President,  204,  205 

of  Vice  President,  204,  205 

state,  127,  128 
Electoral  College,  205 
Employment  service,  70,  191,  196 
Excess  profits  tax,  168 
Executive  department,  defined,  131 

of  nation,  188-191 

of  state,  131-133 
Exports,  148 

Federal   government,    137-224 

trade  commission,  152,  153 
Feeble-minded,  care  of,   109,   110 
Fence-viewer,  85 
Filtration  of  water,   46,   47 
Finances,     of     national     govern- 
ment, 167-170 

of  state,  134-136 
Fire,  alarm  signals,  35 

apparatus  for  fighting,  33 

Department,  34,  35 

losses  from,  33,  35-36 

methods  of  preventing,  36-37 
Fisheries,  bureau  of,  191 
Five-Power  Treaty,  211 
Food,  administration,    145 

inspection  of,  40,  41,  102,  115 

Pure  Food  Act,  11 


248 


INDEX 


Foreign  commerce,  139,  142,  143, 
148,  149,  179,  208,  209,  215, 
216 
mail  service,  10,  155 
relations,  142,  143,  208-212 
Forest,  conservation  of,  160-162, 

191 
Fuel  administration,  145 

Galveston,  Texas,  77,  78,  79,  80 

Gambling,  70 

Garbage,    methods   of    removing, 

51-53 
Government,  autocratic,  3 

definition  of,  3 

democratic,  3-5,    197,    198 

divisions  of,  13-18 

functions  of,  6-12 

need  of,  1-2 

of  city,  13-15,  19-84 

of  county,  15,  16,  87-90 

of  nation,  15,  137-224 

of  state,  15,  91-136,  171,  172 

of  township,  15,  16 

re{)resentativc,  3 

responsibilities  of,  11 
Governor,    influence   of,    131-133 

qualifications  of,  131 

powers  of,  131-133 

Handicapped,  helping  the,  112 
Health,  boards  of,  39-43,  115,  117 
campaigns,  42,  116,  117 
Department,  39-43,  117 
governmeiit  control  of,  9 
in  buildings,  41 
in  schools,  40 

sewage,  a  menace  to,  55,  115 
work  of  city  for,  39-43 
work  of  state  for,  114-117 
Hospital  service,  41,  42 


House     of     representatives,     na- 
tional, 175 
of  state  legislatures,  126-128 

Immigration,  143,  149-152,  195 

need  for  restricting,  149,  150 

bureau  of,  151,  152 
Imports,  148,  149 
Income  taxes,  135,  168 
Inheritance  tax,  135 
Initiative,  129 
Insane,  care  of,  9,  17,  109 
Inspection  of  factories,  41, 116, 117 

of  food,  40,  41,  102,  115 

of  public  buildings,  41 

of  schools,  107 

of  weights  and  measures,    102 
Institutions,    care  of   special 

classes,  8,  99,  109-112 
Insurance,  governmental,  11 

state  control  of,  96 
Interior,  Department  of,  191 

Secretary  of,  189 
International,    alliances,    208-212 

postal  union,  10 
Interstate    commerce,    143,    152,, 

153,  179,  180 
Irrigation,  164 

Jail,  county,  87,  124,  125 
Judge,  119,  120,  123,  124 

functions  of,  29 
Judicial  system,  of  city,  30 

of  county,  87 

of  nation,  182-187 

of  state,  118-124 
Jury,  119,  122-124 
Justice,  administration  of,  8 

Department  of,  190 

of  supreme  court,  169 

of  the  peace,  121 
Juvenile  court,  31,  122 


INDEX 


249 


Labor,   Department   of,    191 

Secretary  of,  189 
Land,   conservation  of,    164,   165 

made  from  waste,  53 
Laws,  criminal,  102 

for  protection  of  citizens,  102 

kinds  of,  100-102 

need  for,  100 

regarding  business,  101 

regarding     personal     relation- 
ships, 100 

regarding  property,  100,  101 

state,  99-102 
League  of  Nations,  210 
Lectures,  free,  66 
Legislative  department,  of  nation, 
175-180 

of  state,  126-130 
Legislature,  state,  126-129 

of  two  houses,  126,  127 
Libraries,  66 
Licenses,  136 
Life-saving  service,  190 
Lighthouse  bureau,  191 
Losses  from  fire,  33,  36,  37 
Lynching,  8 

Machinery,  influence  of,  213,  214 
Markets,  bureau  of,  191 
Marriage,  laws  regarding,  100 
Mayor,  73-77 

Mayor-council  plan  of  city  gov- 
ernment, 72-76 
Military  power  of  Congress,  144, 
180 

of  governor,  132,  133 

of  President,  145 
Militia,  state,  132,  133 
Minerals,  conservation  of,  162,  163 
Mint  at  Philadelphia,  142 
Money,  coining,  143,  180,  190 


Moving-picture  ^houses,  69 
Municipal  courts,  121.    (<See  City.) 
Museums,  60 

National  debt,  168,  169 

defense,  7,  139,  144-147 
National  government,  15-17,  137- 
224 

departments  of,  175-191 

development  of,  137-141 

limitations  on,  172 

need  for,  137,  138 

powers  of,  171,  172 

work  of,  142,  143 
Natural    resources,    conservation 
of,  160-165 

kinds  of,  160 
Naturahzation,     143,     191,     221, 

222 
Naval   Disarmament  Conference, 
211 

Holiday,  211 
Navigation,  bureau  of,  191 
Nav3%  145,  147 

Department,  190 

Secretary  of,  147,  189 

reduction  of,  147,  211,  212 
Normal  schools,  64 

Panama  Canal,  178 
Parcel  post,   143,   155 
Pardons,  133,  190 
Parish,  87 
Parks,  68,  191 
Parties,  political,  201-207 

aims  of,  204 

history  of,  201,  202 

in    local     elections,     205,     206 

organization  of,  204 

principles  of,  206 

reasons  for,  201 


250 


INDEX 


Parties,  responsibility  for  officers, 

206,  207 
Patents,  180,  191 
Peace,  steps  towards  permanent, 

210-212 
Pensions,  191 
Playgrounds,  69 
Police,  26-29 

courts,  30 

department,  26-31 

duties  of,  26-29 

traffic,  27 

training  schools  for,  29 

women,  28 
Political  parties,  201-207 
Poll  tax,  135 

Population  of  United  States,  163 
Porto  Rico,  180 

Post  Office  Department,  10,  155- 
158,  190 

expenses  of,  158 

revenues  of,  145 
Postal,  money  orders,  157 

savings  banks,  143,  156,  157 

service,  10,  143,  155-158 
Postmaster  General,  157,  158,  189 
Pound-keeper,  85 
President,  cabinet  of,  18^191 

duties  of,  188,  189 

election  of,  204,  205 

military  powers  of,  145 

term  of,  188 

veto  power  of,  189 
Presiding  officer  of  state  legisla- 
tures, 128 
Prisons,  124,  125,  190 
Prohibition,  amendment,  173,  243 

party,  204 
Property,  inheritance  of,  100,  135 

laws  regarding,  100 

tax,  89,  134,  135 


Property,  transfer  of,  100,  101 
Protective  tariff,  148 

Quarantine,  40 

Radio,  214 

Railroads,  control  of,  96,  97,  143, 

179,  180 
Rainwater,  disposal  of,  56,  57 
Reclamation  of  arid  lands,  164, 191 
Recreation,  68-70 
Referendum,  129 
Regents,  board  of,  105 
Representative  democracy,  4 
Representatives,  election  of,  128, 
175 

House  of,  4,  126-129 

number  of,  175 

qualifications  of,  175 

term  of,  175 
Republican  party,  149,  202 
Revenue,  federal,  158,  190 

state,  134-136 
Roads,  care  of,  89 

construction  of,  89,  97,  135,  191, 
193 
Rubbish,  sorting  and  destroying, 
53,  54 

making  land  from,  53 
Rural  mail  delivery,  155,  156 

Sanitary  code,  39 
Sanitation.    {See  Health.) 
Schools,  attendance  at,  107 

boards,  62,  81,  105 

buildings,  61-62 

course  of  study  in,  60 

elementary,  60-61 

financial  aid  for,  105,  106,  194 

for  training  policemen,  29 

health  in,  40 

high,  61,  106 


INDEX 


251 


Schools,  inspection  of,  107 

night,  64,  65 

special  classes  in,  64 

superintendent  of,  62,  81,  105 

vocational,  61,  64 
{See  Education.) 
Secret  service,  190 
Secretary,  of  Agriculture,  189 

of  Commerce,  189 

of  Labor,  189 

of  the  Navy,  147,  189 

of  State,  national,  189 

of  the  Interior,  189 

of  the  Treasury,  189 

of  War,  145,  189 
Selectmen,  85 
Senate,  state,  126-128 

United  States,  175-177,  188 
Senators,  United  States,  election 
of,  176,  177 

number  of,  175,  176 

qualifications  of,  177 

term  of,  176 
Sewage,  55,  56,  114,  115 
Sheriff,  90 

Smith-Hughes  Act,  194 
Snow,  removal  of,  22,  23 
Social  welfare,  11,  96 
Socialist  party,  203 
Soldiers,  care  ox  old  and  disabled, 

112 
Speaker  of  assembly,  128 
Special  classes,  care  of,  99,  109-112 

in  schools,  64 
State,    affairs    controlled    by,    14 

Department  of,  189,  190 

finances,  134-136 

functions  of,  99 

government,    15,    91-136,    171, 
172 

judicial  system,  118-125 


State,  laws,  100-103 

legislature,  126-129 

officers  of,  95,  96 

powers  of,  92,  93,  171,  172 

prison,  124,  125 

size  of,  92 

supervision  of  schools,  62,  99, 
105-107 

taxes,  134-136 

universities,  106 
Streets,     advantages     of     good, 
20 

cleaning,  21,  22 

lighting,  23,  24 

paving,  20,  21 
Superintendent  of  sc-h'vils,  62,  81, 

105 
Supreme    court,     national,     184— 
186 

state,  122 
Surrogate  court,  122 

TarifJ,   148,   167,  202,  203 

commission,  149 

for  revenue  only,  148 

protective,  148 
Taxation,    as    result    of    "naval 
holiday,"  211 

power  of  Congress,  177,  178 

rate  of,  89 
Taxes,  97 

collection  of,  89 

corporation,  135 

definition  of,  89 

excess  profits,  168 

excise,  167 

income,  135,  168 

inheritance,  135 

poll,  135 

property,  89,  134,  135 

state,  134,  135 


252 


INDEX 


Theaters,  69 

Thiift  stamps,  157 

Town  meeting,  in  New  England, 

84,85 
Township,  government  of,  15,  16, 

84-86 
Traffic  police,  27 

courts,  31 
Treasury,  Department,  190 

Secretaiy  of,  189 
Treaties,  Five- Power,  211 

foreign,  209,  210,  211 

of    Naval    Disarmament    Con- 
ference, 211 

on   relations   with   China,    211 

ratification  of,  177,  188 

Treaty  of  Versailles,  210 
Trial,  by  jury,  122-124 
Tuberculosis,    prevention    of,    9, 

66,  111-112,  114,  115,  117 
Typhoid  fever,  114 

Universities,  64,  106,  107 

Versailles,  Treaty  of,  210 
Veto  power  of  governor,  132 
of  President,  189 


Vice  President,  election  of, 204, 205 
Voting,  59,  79,  96,  97.     (.See  Elec- 
tions.) 

War,  Department,  190 

declaration  of,  180 

powers  of  Congress,  180 

Secretary  of,  145,  189 

The  World  War,  111,  112,  144- 
147,  168,  180,  210,  211,  221 
War  savings  stamps,  157 
Waste,  disposal  of,  51-57 

making  land  from,  53 

reason  for  removal,  51,  52 
Water,  chemical  treatment  of,  47 

filtration  of,  46,  47 

hard,  47,  48 

paying  for  use  of,  48 

preventing  waste  of,  49 

protection  of,  114,  115 

supply,  45-49,  115 
Weather  Bureau,  191 
Weights  and  measures,  102,  180 
Wills,  101 

Wilson,  President,  8,  146 
Woman  suffrage,  173 
Women  on  police  force,  28 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


PEB  8     1950 

iREc'o  um 

MAR15196h 


Form  L-9-15m-7,'32 


i  Uti 


